Psychology
Dissertation Research Proposal
Introduction
Generally, extrinsic rewards can take the form of money, scholarships, or other incentives whereas intrinsic motivation is the self-motivation that comes with enjoying the task being carried out. This paper discusses extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation with participants in sporting events or exercising. Debate over the negative effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation has been ongoing for over 40 years and remains an essential feature of industrial and organizational psychology (Cerasoli et al., 2014). Critics say that since the sports participant must participate in the sporting event or exercise, than whether or not they have intrinsic motivation does not matter (Cerasoli et al., 2014). On the other hand, Cerasoli et al. (2014) argue that the potential of achieving or losing extrinsic rewards does influence behaviors that are intrinsically motivated (Cerasoli et al., 2014). In sports, “motivation refers to how personal, social and environmental variables interact and determine the final choice between one or another sport activity and the intensity, persistence and performance devoted to that task” (Gomez-Lopez, Gallegos, Baena-Extremera, & Abraldes, 2014).
Hypotheses
If motivation is intrinsic, then performance resulting from intrinsic motivation will be stronger than the performance of the same sport when extrinsic motivation is applied. The hypotheses are based on a study of the work by (Cerasoli et al., 2014).
Hypothesis 1A: Intrinsic motivation positively correlates with performance outcomes.
Hypothesis 1B: The promise of extrinsic rewards weakens the relationship between intrinsic motivation and performance outcomes.
Methods
A systematic review and meta-analysis will be used in the research. Research studies will be chosen from academic peer-reviewed journals and from data bases such as PubMed and Science Direct. Studies that report research on the effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation will be collected. The studies chosen will include teen to adult sport participants of both genders in research that has taken place in the past 20 years. The studies must be similar; in particular the data needs to be similar so statistical analysis can be applied.
The risk of bias needs to be calculated in order to show how close the data is to the “true intervention” (Higgins, Altman, & Sterne, 2011). Bias is a serious concern when comparing non-randomized studies, such as when the participants are identified as sport participants in other words the participants are targeted instead of randomly chosen (Higgins, Altman, & Sterne, 2011). The literature review must be designed well to narrow bias by identifying suitable cross over research designs according to Higgins, Altman, and Sterne (2011). Results from comparable research are needed because bias arises when poorly comparable studies are used for the meta-analysis. Another problem leading to risk of bias is that the research being used did not carry out appropriate analysis, therefore the research results in the published studies needs to be carefully evaluated.
The meta-analytic method is preferred over a primary study because extrinsic rewards and intrinsic motivation and be linked to performance outcomes (Moher et lal, 2009; Cerasoli et al., 2014). Meta-analysis is a quantitative method that uses statistics to evaluate the pooled data gathered from the systematic literature review. Statistical significance can be determined by analyzing the distributions of “correlation and coefficients” of the data that indicates reliability of the experiment (Chatzisarantis et al., 2003). The SPSS statistical model will be used to calculate chi-square to measure statistical differences in frequency of performance goals, two-way ANOVA tests the interaction between the independent variable (physical activity of the sport participants) and the dependent variables (intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards) by observing the value of correlation coefficients and if the values meet the statistical probability, p< 0.05 requirement to remain in the study. A meta-analytic regression on motivation can be carried out by using the meta-analysis carried out by Cerasoli et al. (2014) as a guide.
Results
Results will be reported in tables and graphs based on linear regression. For example, Meta-analytic regression table on Motivation will include the type of predictor: Intrinsic motivation, extrinsic incentive, R, and R2 (Cerasoli et al., 2014). R and R2 will be reported for between groups, the studies and for quantity and quality (Cerasoli et al., 2014).
Figure 1 Extrinsic Rewards vs. Intrinsic Motivations
The ideal linear relationship is shown in a example of a graph of extrinsic rewards versus intrinsic motivation is shown in figure 1. The results are from a study over time of students doing sports from age 14 to age 18. Figure 1shows that the older the students grew, extrinsic rewards increased proportionally to intrinsic motivation.
The youngest sport participants (14-15 years) showed the lowest intrinsic motivation level due to the low extrinsic rewards received (Mihailescu et al., 2013). As the age of the participants increased the more extrinsic rewards they received so the older participants showed the highest level of intrinsic motivation (Mihailescu et al., 2013).
Discussion
Cerasoli et al. (2014) carried out a 40 year systematic review and meta-analysis pof the results chosen from the rand reported that their study showed that “intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentive jointly predict performance” but intrinsic motivation predicted performance more reliably than extrinsic rewards (p. 2).
The participants of a research study by Gomez-Lopez et al. (2014) were 63 female handball players aged from 16 to 36. The women were all identified as intrinsically motivated. Meanwhile the ego-oriented players noted slightly the influence of extrinsic rewards, whereas task-oriented players were influenced both by intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards (Gomez-Lopez et al., 2014).
Conclusion
The research results of Mihailescu et al. (2013) agreed with the results of Cerasoli et al. (2014) that extrinsic rewards do influence intrinsic motivation. The proposed research will carry out a systematic review of research from 20 years in the past to the present; the data will identify any trends in the past two decades up to the most recently published research that relate to the debate over the influence extrinsic rewards have on intrinsic motivation. The research will show if a trend can be identified that shows extrinsic rewards influence intrinsic motivations positively or negatively. The systematic review will set a limitation of sports participants in the teen and adult year of both genders.
References
Baena-Extremera, A., Gómez-López, M., Granero-Gallegos, and A., J. Arturo Abraldes, A. J. (2014).Motivation, Motivational Climate and Importance of Physical Education, , Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 132, 37-42, ttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.04.275
Cerasoli, C. P., Nicklin, J. M., & Ford, M. T. (2014). Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Incentives Jointly Predict Performance: A 40-Year Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin. Advance online publication. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0035661
Chatzisarantis, N. L. D., Hagger, M. S., Biddle, S. J. H., Smith, B., & Wang, J. C. K. (2003). A Meta-analysis of Perceived Locus of Casualty in Exercise, Sport, and Physical Education Contexts. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 25, 284-306. http://sdtheory.s3.amazonaws.com/SDT/documents/2003_ChatHaggerBiddleSmithWang_JSEP.pdf
Gómez-López, M., Granero-Gallegos, A., Baena-Extremera, A., and Abraldes, J. A. 2014. Goal orientation effects on elite handball players motivation and motivational climate. 6th International Conference on Intercultural Education “Education and Health: From a transcultural perspective” Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 132, 434 – 440
Higgins, J. P.T., & Green, S. (ed.). (2011). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Higgins, J. P. T., Altman, D. G., & Sterne, A. C. Assessing risk of bias in included studies. Chpt. 8 in J. P.T. Higgins, & S. Green, (ed.). (2011). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. Version 5.1.0 [updated March 2011]. The Cochrane Collaboration, www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Mihailescu, L., Haralambie, A., Mihailescu, L.E., Mihailescu, N. (2013). The Quantification of The Motivational Level of the Performance Sport participants, Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 29-33,ISSN 1877-0428, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.504 .
Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, & Altman DG, The PRISMA Group (2009) Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med 6(7): e1000097. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
