Psychology: Baddeley’s Working Memory
Introduction – Baddeley’s Working Memory
Short term memory is an important aspect in human lives as it influences behavior and outcomes in daily lives in more ways than one – of which the role played in development of working memory is an important factor. Even though short term memory is considered to have significant differences from working memory, they are considered to be related by eminent psychologists. The most common factor behind this perspective is that both short term memory and working memory are involved in the storage of information temporarily in an individual. Working memory can be best described to be the framework whereby an individual’s decision making is influenced by the processes and structures which store and manipulate information (Chen and Naveh-Benjamin, 2012).
In this regard, eminent works have been presented by experts of which Baddeley’s (2007) Working Memory is one of the most well known theoretical frameworks. The working memory model further investigates the relationship and relevance of short term memory in daily activities and functions (Baddeley, 2007) which is regarded by many to be an alternative improvisation to Atkinson and Shriffin’s multi store memory model. Essentially, the Working Memory model forwarded by Baddeley consisted of three components – the supervisory Central Executive System which exercise control over its two main slave systems – the Phonological Loop and the Visuospatial Sketchpad. The working and mechanism of the Working Memory Model is explained in the following section.
The Central Executive System controls the flow of information to and from the slave systems (Baddeley, 2007). In the year 2000, Baddeley added another component to the Working Memory Model as a slave system which was that of the Episodic Buffer, taking the number of slave systems to three. The main focus of this presentation is on this model itself, as reflections by researchers and the perceived importance of their findings on Baddeley’s Working Memory Model will be highlighted along with implications, limitations and scope of future researchers on the same.
Importance of Baddeley’s Working Memory and Purpose of this Study
Before focus is given on highlighting the rationale behind this study and highlighting the importance of the chosen topic, it is essential to explain the model as following the same, understanding the analysis of the model by other researchers will become easier. As has been highlighted, the model comprises of four basic components – the supervisory central executive system (CES) and its three slave systems – phonological loop (PL), visuospatial sketchpad (VS) and episodic buffer (ES) (Baddeley, 2007). According to Baddeley’s Working Memory Model, the main task of the CES is to combine information from multiple sources into coherent episodes which is achieved by ensuring co-ordination between the slave systems.
At its simplest, the work of the CES can be described to be that of combining and storing information from sight, sound and time lapse sources into segments which are thereafter recalled by individuals while performing regular, spontaneous tasks in a repetitive environment. The need to highlight repetitive environment is due to the fact that short term and working memory is triggered when individuals are exposed to similar and familiar situations. The phonological loop and visual sketchpads are essentially the mechanism of the brain to store and retrieve audio and visual information respectively – as in familiarity with vocabulary terms and verbal instructions, and fragments of visual experience (for example the visual sequences of a particular room, interaction, etc.). The episodic buffer helps in sequentially storing these components in terms of time.
An example of a situation can be provided – the functions of a mail room attendant in a huge office. Supposedly, he is asked by his supervisor whether he can confirm a parcel had been delivered to the manager (let’s say, Mr. M). At this instance his working memory will spring into action and the CES will try to retrieve information from various sources: the phonological loop will provide information about the last interaction the attendant had with the manager; the visuospatial sketchpad will try to provide the details of the object (also whether there was any) of the last interaction and the episodic buffer will provide the information about the last interaction itself. The CES will combine and process these information sources and enable the attendant to confirm with his supervisor whether the parcel in question was delivered to the manager or not.
It needs to be highlighted that the above mentioned mechanism of the working memory is in accordance to the findings and recommendations of Baddeley. As is the case with researchers, Baddeley’s Working Memory theory is, to a large extent based on his understandings and perceptions of the working memory. The essence of research and findings by one expert is based on the fact that analysis and evaluation of the same by others is also dependent on their studies and evidences produced. Thus, to be able to present a clear picture attention also needs to be provided on the findings of other researchers on Baddeley’s theory or on studies which are based around the theory as well.
In order to ascertain the views of other experts on the topic, this study focuses on utilization of secondary research into 6 main studies which have been conducted by experts related to working memory. These studies are mentioned as under.
The first such research study which has been focused upon is titled ‘Reconceptualizing Working Memory in Educational Research’ (Fenesi, Sana, Kim and Shore, 2015). The study focuses on not only Baddeley’s Theory of Working Memory but it also compares the relevance of theoretical perspectives of working memory as a whole in the development of competence in mathematics, reading, multimedia learning, language as well as writing. The study sheds light on the importance of Working Memory Capacity (WMC) and the role of measurement of the same using span tasks. What is important to be highlighted here is that the research study also substantially brings to light the relationship between learning and both short term memory and long term memory, and presents shortcomings of Baddeley’s Working Memory quite well.
The second research study which needs to be highlighted here is titled ‘Attention, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory in Multimedia Learning: An Integrated Perspective Based on Process Models of Working Memory’ (Schweppe and Rummer, 2014). In this study, the experts have given attention to not only one but multiple theories of cognitive learning, which includes Baddeley’s Theory of Working Memory as far as multimedia learning is concerned. The authors of the research specifically state that as far as multimedia learning is concerned, attention needs to be given on Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning and the Cognitive Load Theory, which depend equally on different models of cognitive working memory such as Baddeley’s. It is also stated by the authors that working memory cannot be considered to be a separate entity as they believe that working memory is actually a part of long term memory itself.
The third research study to be highlighted here is titled ‘The Multicomponent Working Memory Model, Attention, and Long-term Memory in Multimedia Learning: A Comment on Schweppe and Rummer (2014)’ (Soemer, 2016). Like in the previous case, the author also focuses on the specific aspect of multimedia learning, especially directed at the reflections which had been provided by Schweppe and Rummer (2014). The main focus of the research seems to be on identifying and highlighting the drawbacks associated by with Schweppe and Rummer. One of the main aspects which have been observed in Soemer’s account is that Schweppe and Rummer had considered and subsequently misinterpreted the relationship between long term memory and working memory. Soemer also highlights that multimedia learning indeed needs to integrate central executive and functionally specialized mechanisms – referring to phonological and visuospatial mechanisms which had originally been included in the working memory theory forwarded by Baddeley.
The fourth research study associated with this presentation is titled “‘The Role of Working Memory in Multimedia Instruction: Is Working Memory Working during Learning from Text and Pictures?” (Schuler and Erlijn, 2011). The objective of the researchers in this study was to find out how well an individual’s visuospatial memory is involved in the learning process as the research involved evaluation of this ability in participants. The authors mention that forms of audio-visual instructions were used to provide directions to 82 participants to perform a job (first aid procedures), post which their efficiency was evaluated. The findings indicated to the researchers that learning was more effective when visual tools are used to provide instructions/directions to individuals as compared to learning from text only in manuals.
The fifth study which has been focused upon is titled ‘Working Memory and Down Syndrome’ (Baddeley and Jarrold, 2007). The authors have attempted to establish a link between Down syndrome and limitations in the framework of Working Memory in individuals. The researchers have suggested that in individuals suffering from Down syndrome, cognitive abilities are limited as the CES is not able to process information from the other three components effectively. As a result, the learning abilities are hampered as working memory does not suffice to be as helpful as it should be. As a result of which, an individual’s thinking and decision making abilities are usually less mature by many years than is the age of the individual.
The last study on which focus needs to be given is titled ‘The Multi-Component model of Working Memory: Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology’ (Repovs and Baddeley, 2006). This study by Repovs and Baddeley is more or less a reciprocation of the Working Memory model as suggested by Baddeley with a lot of emphasis given to the phonological framework. However, there are a few aspects which were illuminated by the authors in their findings. These are limited span, the word length effect and articulatory suppression. The authors have suggested that limited span is an important characteristic of the phonological framework as the amount of information that the verbal short term can hold is basically limited. What it suggests is that it is not possible to hold all of the verbal/auditory information received and this influences capacity in individuals to remember. The word length effect substantiates this reflection as the findings of the authors suggested that with an increase in the number of word length in speech/audio sources, the retention capacity of the individual is reduced significantly. By articulation suppression the authors mentioned that with the increase in frequency of repetition of articulation of an unfamiliar word, the recipients’ ability to reciprocate the same gets reduced significantly.
A discussion on the Results and Findings of studies
In this section, the focus is on discussion of the results and findings of the research works highlighted above and presentation of the outcomes from the same. As a result of which, it becomes important to first summarize the key findings from the research.
(1) Working memory is not entirely a different entity – from the suggestions and reflections by Baddeley, it might seem that working memory is entirely a different entity due to the nomenclature it is assigned. However, the studies have highlighted that working memory, which is often associated with short term memory is actually a part of the long term memory capacity of individuals. The reason as to why it is identified with the term working memory is due to the act that it is specialized in enabling an individual to be able to perform routine tasks which is basically what the work or occupation of an individual consists of. Authors have agreed that while it is basically part of the memory functions process, the specific character and nature of the framework perhaps warrants the nomenclature. However, at the same time it also needs to be highlighted that the ability of storage of working memory is significantly limited, which is the main basis of differentiation from long term memory, as suggested by others.
(2) Effectiveness of working memory influences cognitive ability – the above literary evidences highlighted have also pointed out to a very important fact, that effectiveness of the working memory influences cognitive ability of individuals. Learning, assimilation and analysis of information is what cognitive abilities generally comprise of and it is important to understand the fact that in all of these cases, ability of an individual to quickly store and retrieve information temporarily plays an important role. Since working memory is essentially made up of the ability to store and analyze sight, sound and time-bound sequences, the effectiveness of an individual working memory framework determines the efficiency of the cognitive ability.
(3) Working memory determines the effectiveness of multimedia instructions – information sources are in fact dependent on the combination of a number of media – sight, sound as well as sense and it is the working memory which determines the ability of an individual to correctly interpret information when a combination of the same are used. The studies (Schuler and Erlijn, 2011) highlighted that when the same information was imparted using two different medium – in one case a paper document and in the other case an audio-visual presentation, individuals who were exposed to multimedia instruction where found to retain more information as compared to others who were only provided written instructions.
(4) Medical/Health and other conditions do affect working memory capacity – another important finding from the research has been that working memory capacity is also affected by prevalence of medical or other health conditions which interfere in normal functioning. It is primarily due to the fact that health conditions affect assimilation of information by the phonological loop and visual sketchpads rendering either the information gathering process incomplete, or the CES unable to process complete information. Thus, it also affects working memory capacity and performance of normal cognitive actions.
(5) Baddeley’s model has limitations – the final and important aspect to be highlighted here is the fact that Baddeley’s Working Memory model also has limitations – the main coming from the fact that it is dependent on the span tasks of the CES. Span tasks are themselves affected by time lapse and thus affect effectiveness of the model for a prolonged character.
Future implications of research on Baddeley’s Working Memory
The hypothetical idea of working memory accept that a restricted limit framework, which incidentally keeps up and stores data, bolsters human points of view by giving an interface between discernment, long haul memory and activity. There are numerous ways to deal with the investigation of working memory, utilizing a scope of exact and hypothetical procedures. Be that as it may, most hypotheses concur on the requirement for an arrangement of restricted attentional limit, supplemented by all the more incidentally based stockpiling frameworks. The record that takes after accentuates this fractionation, focusing on the significance of official control, however focusing at first on the more tractable fringe stockpiling frameworks. Inside test subjective brain research there are a few distinctive however corresponding ways to deal with working memory: some underline the part of attentional control in memory, though others endeavor to clarify working memory information as far as models that were initially produced for long haul memory (LTM).
Nonetheless, the vast majority of reactions apply just in the event that one endeavors to clarify every one of the marvels of working memory as far as the phonological circle — one segment of a mind boggling framework. As this audit appears, the phonological circle has gotten more consideration than different segments, yet this mirrors its relative tractability, contrasted and the visuospatial and official subsystems. A third, compelling methodology depends on correlational strategies that profit by individual contrasts over the different segments of working memory. As opposed to endeavoring to give a record of each of these methodologies, the future research considerations depict a solitary multi-segment model of working memory. By and large, deviations from alternate models speak to distinction of accentuation and degree, instead of direct clash.
These distinctions incorporate its multi-part character, its accentuation on joined preparing and capacity, and the weight on its useful significance as a framework that encourages a scope of subjective exercises, for example, thinking, learning and perception. This methodology brought about the improvement of an arrangement of test assignments that could be utilized to break down various exercises and subject populaces. Since the accessible experimental confirmation gave couple of limitations, the model was at first approximately indicated: for instance, it had no instrument for putting away serial request (Baddeley, 2007). Notwithstanding, it was straightforward and strong, and could create and turn out to be much wealthier and all the more obviously indicated. The Baddeley model keeps on prospering.
Unmistakably, there is requirement for a nearer connect between exploration on the phonological circle and work on dialect discernment and creation, and between work on the sketchpad, on visual handling and on engine control. On account of the focal official, there is an unmistakable need to relate it to the broad work that exists on official control — a lot of it being worried with examination of frontal projection capacity. The proposed join between working memory and abilities likewise speaks to an enthusiastic and energizing interface. There is, be that as it may, even now a scarcity of exploration on what drives the framework. The conative, enthusiastic and motivational control of working memory is pivotal, however generally overlooked. The multi-part working memory model has an idea of data. Working memory keeps on giving an exceedingly gainful general hypothesis: human points of view are supported by a coordinated framework for incidentally putting away and controlling data. The multi-segment show that is depicted here offers one record of its hidden procedures.
Limitations of the Research Findings
It needs to be highlighted here that this research work is also characterized by the presence of limitations which are as under:
(1) Sole dependence on secondary research – one of the aspects which make researches more acceptable and efficient is the analysis of both primary and secondary sources of information.
(2) Concise information – due to the limitations in terms of volume of final work, the research highlights key information in a concise manner, especially the reflections and ideas which are provided by other experts. It is believed that expanding the same could have been more beneficial.
(3) Resource constraint – this study is characterized by limited resources, as greater availability in terms of both academic, technological and financial would have improved content and quality.
Overcoming the limitations in future researches
As far as future research work is concerned on Baddeley’s Working Memory, the above mentioned limitations need to be improved upon. Given that volume of research work to be presented is not as constraining as in this case, both primary and secondary sources of data analysis can be included. This will greatly eliminate dependence on other researchers’ findings and sample studies and will also pave the way for generation of more ideas and questions. At the same time, more and more information can be included, especially the different aspects associated with working memory, short term and long term memory and also analysis of other similar frameworks suggested by experts. It will enable a comparison of these sources and the wide gamut of literary evidence will help in providing a more structured and composite approach.
Works Cited
Baddeley, A. and Jarrold, C. (2007). Working memory and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research , 51 (12), 925-931.
Baddeley, A.D. (2007). Working memory, thought and action. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chen, T. and Naveh-Benjamin, M. (2012). Assessing the Associative Deficit of Older adults in long-term and Short-term/working Memory. Psychology and Aging , 27 (3), 666-682.
Fenesi, B., Sana, F., Kim, J.A. and Shore, D.I. (2015). Reconceptualizing Working Memory in Educational Research. Educational Psychology Review , 27 (2), 333-351.
Repovs, G. and Baddeley, A. (2006). The multi-component model of working memory: Explorations in experimental cognitive psychology. Neuroscience , 139 (1), 5-21.
Schüler, A. S. and Erlijn, K. G. (2011). The Role of Working Memory in Multimedia Instruction: Is Working Memory Working During Learning from Text and Pictures? Educational Psychology Review , 23 (3), 389-411.
Schweppe, J. and Rummer, R. (2014). Attention, Working Memory, and Long-Term Memory in Multimedia Learning: An Integrated Perspective Based on Process Models of Working Memory. Educational Psychology Review , 26 (2), 285-306.
Soemer, A. (2016). The Multicomponent Working Memory Model, Attention, and Long-term Memory in Multimedia Learning: A Comment on Schweppe and Rummer (2014). Educational Psychology Review , 28 (1), 197-200.
