Thesis Statement
The State Department is concerned about the declining number of qualified candidates willing to accept diplomatic posts abroad. According to GAO (2012b), the State “faces persistent experience gaps in overseas Foreign Service positions, particularly at the midlevels, and these gaps have not diminished since 2008”. In 2008, there were 1,169 vacant foreign service positions. Since then, the number of vacancies gradually increased and in 2011, there were 1,296 vacant Foreign Service positions. USAID also reported the significant decline in the number of Foreign Service officers assigned abroad. In 1992, USAID hired 3,163 Foreign Service officers but in 2002, the organization was only able to hire 1,985 - a 37 percent decrease in employment (GAO, 2003). The employment gap is a major problem because it impedes the State Department’s effective implementation of its foreign policies. “During the past decade, this trend [employment gaps in foreign service job postings] has affected USAID’s ability to implements its foreign assistance program as the number of U.S. direct-hire foreign service officers declined” (GAO, 2003, p. 4).
One of the primary reasons why qualified candidates decline job assignments is their concern over the impact of relocation on their family and marriage. Although the government implements pre-departure training programs aiming to prepare trailing spouses for upcoming challenges they would encounter post-relocation, trailing spouses find these programs inefficient. Therefore, the research aims to develop a multidimensional pre-departure training model that would fill in the shortcomings of existing training programs for trailing spouses. The multidimensional pre-departure training program aims to target varied needs of trailing spouses – career placement, stress management, cross-cultural learning, and language learning. The development of a multidimensional pre-departure training model for trailing spouses of American diplomats would resolve the inadequacies of existing training programs because it would accurately address the diverse and specific needs of trailing spouses by equipping them with necessary knowledge and skills to face problems and challenges pre- and post-relocation.
Literature Review
Introduction
Assigning qualified diplomats is one of the primary challenges faced by the U.S. government. According to a report organized by the Government Accountability Office (GAO) in 2002, many qualified employees for diplomatic positions turned down job postings abroad, especially at hardship posts. Hardship posts refer to job assignments in “isolated, unhealthful and perhaps dangerous environment” (U.S. Department of State, 2012a) with poor conditions including “substandard schools for children, severe climate, high crime, political instability, and physical isolation” (GAO, 2012a). GAO evaluated the current conditions of diplomatic posts and discovered that the government is understaffed and as a result, “diplomatic programs and management controls at hardship posts could be vulnerable and posts’ ability to carry out U.S. foreign policy objectives effectively could be weakened” (GAO, 2012a).
One notable reason why candidates refuse to accept job postings abroad is the potential impact of relocation on their family and marriage (Vance & Paik, 2010; Purgat-Popiela, 2011). Candidates being considered for diplomatic posts often worry about how their duties or responsibilities, and the living conditions in other countries would affect their family and their relationship with their spouses (Harvey, 1998; Konopaske, Robie, &Ivancevich, 2005; Vance & Paik, 2010; Purgat-Popiela, 2011). Trailing spouses thus, influence the decision of qualified candidates to accept job postings, and their satisfaction and wellbeing at host countries affect the performance and productivity of diplomats (Economist Intelligence Unit, 2010; Frye, 1991; Maybarduk, 2008; Pascoe, 2000). “Effective international adjustment should also be a major concern for a spouse and family members” because “Their lack of effective adjustment can spill over to hinder the expatriate’s adjustment, adding an extra strain impeding work performance and possibly even precipitating a premature termination of the assignment” (Vance & Paik, 2010, p. 253). Moreover, the trailing spouse “can be a drain on the expatriate’s energy and might contribute to a premature end of the assignment” (Vance & Paik, 2010, p. 252). Therefore, when assigning qualified candidates to job posts abroad, the government must take the interests of trailing spouses into consideration. Implementing pre-departure training programs for trailing spouses of American diplomats is an effective way of motivating Foreign Service Officers (FSO) and trailing spouses to accept job assignments and prepare them for upcoming challenges and conflicts.
Pre-departure training programs, however, must meet the diverse needs of trailing spouses (Vance & Paik, 2010). Previous studies prove that although training models are in place to help trailing spouses deal with major resultant issues post-relocation such as unemployment, insufficient household income, social isolation, and inability to communicate, among others (Dodd, 2007; Forster, 2006; Harvey & Wiese, 1998; Lee & Croker, 2006; Shahnasarian, 1991). Nevertheless, these programs are inadequate because they do not fully meet the needs of trailing spouses (GAO, 2002; GAO, 2006; Neault, 2007; Purgat-Popiela, 2011). GAO reports that although trailing spouses and their families undergo training programs, they still feel unprepared and unqualified to deal with the changes and challenges of relocating abroad (GAO, 2022; GAO 2006). Furthermore, despite the existence of various training programs for trailing spouses, “there is limited training available to equip career practitioners to provide the unique support required by global careerists” such as trailing spouses (Neault, 2007).
Seminara, a trailing spouse of a foreign service officer emphasized the inadequacy of training programs, which affects the capacity of trailing spouses to work abroad. According to Seminara, “despite reciprocity agreements, which the U.S. has with a number of countries, it’s difficult for many spouses to secure gainful employment at many posts around the world” (Seminara, 2012). One of the many reasons that affect employment of trailing spouses include the insufficiency of language training programs and the cost of attending these programs. “Spouses are entitled to take language training at the Foreign Service Institute but many can’t afford to devote months to classroom study and those who do still may not be able to achieve the fluency needed to get jobs” (Seminara, 2012). Furthermore, the AMJ Campbell International Relocation Survey (2008) revealed that “there is a disconnect in communication between headquarters and families about policies and training”. Organizations who offer training programs for trailing spouses claim that they coordinate with families to sign them up for training programs but the respondents of the survey argue that some of them were not informed about the training programs. In addition, 63.7 percent of the respondents said no one from their families underwent training and 76.2 percent said that training organizations did not contact them directly about pre-departure training programs (AMJ Campbell International, 2008).
GAO reported that although Foreign Service officers and trailing spouses participate in foreign language learning, “significant language gaps remain” (GAO, 2002, p. 12). The American Recover and Reinvestment Act of 2009 pushed public and private companies to implement employment and training programs but despite the execution of such programs, even for Foreign Service officers and trailing spouses, the state government is unaware of the outcomes and efficiency of training models (GAO, 2011). Moreover, Braseby’s (2010) evaluation of issues and problems experienced by trailing spouses revealed that although most trailing spouses attend pre-departure training, they still resort to personal research and networking to gain more information about living conditions in other countries due to the insufficiency of training programs. The concerns, problems, and experiences of trailing spouses will be explored further in an interview with trailing spouses.
The roles, duties, and responsibilities of American diplomats and living conditions abroad often affect the desirability of accepting job posts for trailing spouses. A major concern among trailing spouses is employment opportunities after relocation. Most trailing spouses, especially those belonging to dual-income households feel unmotivated to join their partners abroad due to the difficulties of finding jobs. Aside from assessing existing literature about the major concern of trailing spouses, the factors that influence the desirability of job postings for trailing spouses will be identified through the research methodology. An interview will be conducted with a focus group - trailing spouses - to determine their experiences, views, and thoughts about their partners’ jobs as Foreign Service officers.
According to the U.S. Department of State (2012b), the responsibility of FSOs or diplomats of the state are to “promote peace, support prosperity, and protect American citizens while advancing the interests of the U.S. abroad”. The Family Liaison Office (FLO) is responsible for making the transition easier for diplomats and trailing spouses. The FLO’s mission is to “improve the quality of life of all demographics – U.S. government direct-hire employees, their family members, and Members of Household (MOH) – we serve by identifying issues and advocating for programs and solutions, providing a variety of client services, and extending services to overseas communities” (U.S. Department of State, 2012e).
The State acknowledges that American diplomats are often assigned in “difficult and even dangerous environments” (U.S. Department of State, 2012b) but the government compensates through attractive offerings. American diplomats, for instance, may find job postings appealing due to the benefits they receive, which include allowances and incentives, travel opportunities, childcare subsidies, health benefits, life insurance, and competitive salary (U.S. Department of State, 2012c). Moreover, as diplomats, they can pursue different careers – Consular officers, economic officers, management officers, political officers, and public diplomacy officers (U.S. Department of State, 2012f). The State also assures diplomats that their family life “can be very exciting, filled with enriching cultural experiences” and that they can bring their spouse and children abroad, “Except on unaccompanied tours or in cases where there is imminent danger or civil unrest” (U.S. Department of State, 2012d).
The State ensures safety and satisfying experiences, however, diplomats and trailing spouses do not always get what they were promised (Kralev, 2004). The job specifications indicated do not match the actual duties and living conditions of diplomats and trailing spouses in other countries, especially when they are assigned in hardship posts. The GAO’s (2002) report about staffing issues at hardship posts revealed that American diplomats need to endure difficult conditions including extremely high workload, ill-equipped facilities, limited spousal and family support, lack of supporting staff, poor housing conditions and sanitation, and unsafe environments. In addition, qualified candidates are expected to exhibit the following traits: (1) composure, (2) cultural adaptability, (3) experience and motivation, (4) information integration and analysis, (5) initiative and leadership, (6) judgment, (7) objectivity and integrity, (8) oral communication, (9) planning and organizing, (10) quantitative analysis, (11) resourcefulness, (12) working with others, and (13) written communication (U.S. Department of State, 2012g). Overall, the demanding nature of job assignments for American diplomats and poor living conditions in some countries discourage trailing spouses from supporting their partners (Purgat-Popiela, 2011).
The Impact of Relocation and the Specific Needs of Trailing Spouses
Studies conducted by Bayes (1989), Harvey (1995; 1997), Eby, DeMatteo, & Russell (1997), McNulty (2005), Martin (2006), Cudre-Mauroux (2009), Purgat-Popiela (2011) deal with the various impacts of relocation to trailing spouses. Based on the studies, relocation influences the overall well being of trailing spouses. Moving to an unfamiliar place without family and friends is isolating for trailing spouses. The sense of loss and isolation trailing spouses feel leads to loneliness and depression, consequently affecting their ability to socialize with other people and familiarize themselves with the foreign environment. Unemployment and the resulting inadequacy of household income are other factors that affect the emotional stability of trailing spouses. Sometimes, psychological conflict or emotional stability manifest physically as trailing spouses lose their appetite. As a result, trailing spouses lose weight and experience malnutrition (Bayes, 1989; Martin, 2006).
Bayle, Vance and Paik (2010) also discussed the physiological, psychological, mental, and social impacts of relocation among trailing spouses with the five-stage process of international adjustment. According to Vance and Paik (2010), relocation seems appealing to some in the beginning. This stage of the relocation is called the “tourist” or “honeymoon” stage. “However, after a few months or only a few weeks in some cases, euphoria of the first stage wears off and the collective disruption of routine and familiarity in the new environment begins to take its toll” (Vance & Paik, 2010, p. 253). As a result, trailing spouses plummet to the second stage of psychological crisis, which may be caused by culture shock. Moreover, trailing spouses in this stage often experience homesickness, which may lead to anxiety, isolation, and depression. In the third stage, trailing spouses learn to adjust after adequate exposure to the external environment and socialization. Stages four and five concern improvements in the trailing spouse’s situation and experiences resulting to international mastery (Vance & Paik, 2010). However, the adjustment stage and mastery of trailing spouses would require effort from the State and other government entities to help trailing spouses deal with the challenges of relocation. Table1 illustrates direct and indirect activities that the State and affiliate organizations could develop and implement to help trailing spouses adjust after relocation. The direct and indirect activities in Table 1 will be used to structure the framework of the multidimensional training model for trailing spouses.
Table 1.
Direct and Indirect Activities Promoting International Adjustment- where is this from? This needs more context.
Direct Activities: Provide
Indirect Activities: Encourage to
*Ongoing consultation with headquarters via regular communications
*Language and culture training for expatriates and family members
*Logical logistical assistance to handle day-to-day living requirements (for example, grocery shopping, transportation, and schooling arrangements)
*New family “adoption” program by experienced expatriate families or host country families that are very familiar with expat’s culture, providing social network support
*Work and social counseling by PCN peers who have already been in the foreign country for some time
*Psychological counseling for expatriates and family members experiencing stress and anxiety
*Job search assistance and career counseling for accompanying spouse to help create a more meaningful life abroad
*Reflect and build self-awareness and understanding, and develop realistic expectations about the foreign experience
*Get involved in international clubs, religions organizations, or other support groups
*Develop hobbies (especially recommended for the spouse)
*Get involved in local school, religious, and or community activities,
*Keep a journal
*Plan outings and field trips to better understand the local physical and cultural environment
Source: Vance & Paik, 2010, p. 257
Table 1 shows that the State should provide the direct activities in the first column while the indirect activities in the second column should be encouraged to help trailing spouses adjust. The activities will be incorporated in the multidimensional training model. McNulty (2004) also highlighted the importance of providing professional and social support in helping trailing spouses adjust to their environment.
Strategies and Practices in International Human Resource Management (HRM)
The studies by Lam &Dreher (2004), Deery (2008), Harvey, Napuer, Moeller, & Williams (2010) provide insight on various theories and strategies in international HRM such as work life balance, mentoring, and the two-factor theory. Work life balance refers to the concept of balancing prioritization over work and lifestyle, or professional and personal life. Implementing work life balance practices is closely related to stress management, which should be integrated to training programs for trailing spouses. The two-factor theory, on the other hand, proves that job satisfaction is influenced by various factors including motivators and hygiene factors. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs theory proves the importance of meeting the needs and demands of human beings. According to the theory, when human beings achieve each stage of need, they reach a sense of actualization.
Vance and Paik’s (2010) discussion of direct and indirect activities in Table 1 that promote international adjustment serves as good basis for the development of the multidimensional training program for trailing spouses of American diplomats. The direct and indirect activities relate what types of activities and programs or strategies should be integrated in training programs to help trailing spouses cope with challenges and difficulties after relocation. Satisfying the needs and demands of trailing spouses will prove to be rewarding and beneficial to Foreign Service officers.
