Marriage is a tradition that is practiced and honored all over the world. It signifies the birth of a relationship that grants couples the privilege to build families and an enduring kinship ties. Studies show that people who are happily married have more desirable benefits and experiences than those who are unmarried, cohabiting, widowed, or separated (Shariff 557). Specifically, married individuals have better parenting styles, stronger support systems, greater economic security, greater financial resources, healthier psychological status, more desirable emotional wellbeing, greater physical health, and longer life.
Marriage practices in Western countries are different from those of other societies. It has been reported that majority of non-Western countries practice arranged marriage to differing levels. These societies differ as regards the general procedure of marriage and especially in the extent of freedom they bestow upon the marrying person in choosing his/her partner. This paper discusses the nature and characteristics of arranged marriage and, more importantly, the gendered conflict inherent in this kind of marriage and how to best resolve such conflict.
History of Arranged Marriage
Only a handful of researchers have studied arranged marriage, in spite of their pervasiveness in several cultures. Due to the fact that a person's view of his/her marriage is closely associated with the person's cultural background, which involves marriage practices, values, and norms, these cultural factors call for a thorough exploration. Arranged marriage is defined as the marital union of children arranged, put in order, or supervised by the parents, who hope to unite their children with individuals of the same standing and upbringing (Browne 89). These arranged marriages are essentially a unification of two families, and the marrying couple is not necessarily romantically connected to each other. In essence, romantic love is not necessarily present in arranged marriages. They are commonly practiced among Hindus, Sikhs, and Muslims. Arranged marriages are still widespread among Asians living in the UK, where the tradition is generally more rigorously practiced than in some Asian countries, like India (Browne 89). This is due to the fact that the current generation of families in Britain is still intently practicing the traditions which were already present when they moved from India to Britain several decades ago.
At the advent of the twentieth century, most marriages in Africa and Asia were arranged marriages. Over time, these arranged marriages have declined significantly. The fundamental processes of arranged marriage have not evolved a great deal over time, though the tradition itself has become less rigorous over the years. Arranged marriage was already prevalent during the Biblical period (Ebeling 82-83). The customary reasons for these kinds of marriages were social, military, and political. Arranged marriages were common among aristocrats or upper classes across the globe. Evidence accurately shows that these marriages were rooted in economic connections instead of romantic love, and usually included a bride price or dowry (Ebeling 83). The 16th century presents surprising images of marriages not being ceremonial or witnessed which eventually came to be a problem for the church superiors who established a directive to make marriage legal and to redeem the couple from immoral, ungodly procreation and activities (Carroll 16). Hence, love was not believed to be a crucial element for marriage during this period.
For instance, one of the primary purposes of arranged marriage in ancient Egypt was to maintain the purity of the royal lineages. Apparently, procreation within a restricted gene pool can lead to certain horrible genetic diseases; an ill-boding case in point was Europe's royal bloodlines (Allen 645). The so-called 'Royal Disease', which is a blood clotting anomaly or hemophilia, was quite prevalent among the nobility. Prince Leopold, the son of Queen Victoria, was one of the aristocratic youngsters who met a premature death because of hemophilia (Anemone 42). It is a widespread belief that arranged marriage is a practice unique to the Orient, but Western civilizations also have the endemic roots of arranged marriage. The existence of the 'Royal Disease' is one remarkable example. Arranged marriages were also widespread among the Romans. Daughters were a valuable type of asset which could be exploited to assist in the formation of critical and tactical alliances and the bolstering of the family's military status (Anemone 42-44). Europe's female aristocrats were also exploited in this manner until the 1800s.
Blossoming princesses were frequently betrothed to the princes of nearby countries so as to build global alliances. In numerous instances, the marriages were agreed upon at birth, and in certain cases, the marriage was conducted at a very young age. The married child stays with his/her families until s/he becomes fully matured and afterward sent to his/her spouse (Rubio 2-3). A prominent arranged marriage between two noble families was that of Austria-Hungary Queen Maria Theresa's daughter, Marie Antoinette. She was betrothed to a French prince, who later on became known as King Louis XVI (Carroll 33). The burden of arranged marriages was largely experienced by young princesses during a period when transportation was hard. They were often promised to older males who resided in faraway countries. Once she reaches the right age, the bride is shipped to the native land of her spouse.
The substantial political benefits of arranged marriages between royal families made declining to marry the chosen individual an impractical, unwise move. Once the first spouse passes away, the aristocratic widow was frequently re-wedded to another valuable male by her parents and/or other immediate family members. The somewhat forced or compulsory characteristic of traditional arranged marriage made it quite controversial and notorious. Such traditional arranged marriage appears especially common in South Asia, where the members of the family occupy the leading role in organizing or deciding marital unions (Jaiswal 1). India has practiced arranged marriages since the ancient times and are still carried out today. With regard to marriage traditions in India, authors have explored the impact of cultural and religious factors, such as Hinduism; they identified and summed up the major features of Indian marriage practices. These authors discovered the grave inequality and injustice in Indian marriage traditions and the religious causes underlying these (Oldenburg and Talwar 36). However, they failed to compare India with other cultures and discounted the history and purposes of the distinctive Hinduism culture.
In China, the analysis of the explanations of Western missionaries on Chinese marriage traditions centered on customary marriage practices and the liberalization pattern throughout the latter period of the Ming Dynasty (Ciren et al. 114-5). Xu Jian-Sheng (1961) placed emphasis on contemporary China and the influence of Western cultural practices and explained how patriarchy and customary arranged marriages eventually disappeared. These earlier studies largely concentrated on a specific dynasty or a specific era (as cited in Ciren et al. 115). Although arranged marriages were previously the established tradition in China, it has become a prevalent practice for youngsters to decide who to marry. Yet, after the couple makes a decision to get married, the family assumes all the tasks of arranging, following the age-old tradition.
In China, a marriage is not simply a union between two individuals, but a building and strengthening of an alliance between two families. The family of the groom carries out an investigation of the ancestry and background of the family of the bride. A get-together will occur between the two families, often with the presence of the groom and bride. The family of the bride will seize this chance to inquire about the economic situation and reputation of the groom's family, and to make sure that the bride will have a good life (Rubio 2-3). If the family is not contented or pleased about the status of the other family, the marriage will be canceled. If the two families agree to the union, the engagement and wedding transactions are carried out in accordance to customary practices.
Since the publication of The Family, Sex, and Marriage, 1500-1800 by Stone in the 1970, one area of research has placed emphasis on the family arrangement and marriage traditions in English cultures (Ciren et al. 115). Through this scholarly work, a number of authors were able to surmise that arranged marriages were once a widespread tradition in the entire English civilization. Available studies of arranged marriages in English societies reveal almost nothing about the purposes of these arranged marriages for the English cultures and how arranged marriages led to the development of autonomous marriage. Similarly, earlier studies on ancient Roman arranged marriages concentrated on the patriarchal system and marital codes (Ciren et al. 115-6) but did not identify the reasons underlying the phenomenon.
Cultures and Religions
While forming religious, contextual, and cultural models of analyzing and explaining the phenomenon of arranged marriage, it is crucial to view the tradition as a component of the vigorous, forceful mechanism of cultural adaptation and change in an evolving or new environment. In essence, arranged marriage must be analyzed and explained in the broader perspective of the culture, rather than as a phenomenon that is completely unique to the culture at issue. Because arranged marriage is generally a response to risks and perils to the society's cultural practices and self-identity from the cultural or social impact of the larger society, these issues must be dealt with if the tradition is to be lessened in a continual way. As regards the perspective of such external aspects, one should take into consideration the broad array of ideas and perceptions within the society-- both opinions of conventional groups and those demanding more drastic transformation or assimilation into the broader culture (Adamczyk and Hayes 732). Because the problems are also of actual concern for the larger society wherein the culture subsists, this concerted reflection and forethought must ultimately consider these 'outside' opinions without compromising the stability and dynamics of the process for the involved culture.
The aspects of arranged marriage are at times quite complicated. They are often socially and financially driven and can be a source of alliance between families. The bride's security and wellbeing also serve an important function in the practice of arranged marriages. To a bride's father, ensuring that the children of his daughter are adequately provided financially is a major obligation. By becoming fully involved in the process of arranging the marriage and supervising the engagement and wedding transactions for his daughter, a father can make sure that the groom will be capable of providing financially for his daughter (Rubio 3). Arranged marriages are also profoundly influenced by culture. Eastern societies have continued the customs of arranged marriage into the present day; and in numerous instances the children who are arranged for marriage welcome the practice, others believe that it is their obligation to obey the tradition in behalf of their families.
Family relations, economic standing, religion, and age are all determinants of a successful arranged marriage, it is viewed and carried out quite rationally without consideration to the concept of love; arranged marriage can hence be described as strategic or purposeful, love could happen afterward. Alongside a bride would be a dowry as well, at times composed of belongings or cash, a dowry was intended as the endowment of the bride to the marriage, because it was generally unusual for the wife to provide financially for the family (Oldenburg and Talwar 24), the dowry served as a supporting financial resource to the newly formed family.
In a quite wide-ranging perspective, arranged marriages could be more commonplace in collectivistic cultures where expanded social relationships or social support systems are greatly treasured and extended families are actively involved, whereas marriages based on romantic love could be more commonplace in individualistic cultures and could at times commence with romantic love (Grover 18). Nevertheless, this must not be overemphasized. As cultures evolve, the impact of the media, traditions, and law influence how individuals view their marital relationship and there is no surety on how individuals decide or choose. Hence it is important to take into consideration the idea that various types of relationships have distinct benefits and downsides, particularly considering the stability in the long duration, and that families fulfill a major function in both collectivistic and individualist cultures (Brown 89). In both arranged and love marriages, what matters most is the responsive and affectionate support of the families.
Arranged marriage is also influenced by religious aspects; in fact, numerous religions around the world regularly practice arranged marriages. Judaism has changed in the past decades, but numerous Jewish conservatives and Orthodox fanatics still comply with the tradition of arranged marriage. Specifically, the fundamentalists look at marriage as a profitable or commercial dealing. The father of the bride thinks that he is giving up a precious asset and should be paid for such sacrifice (Madathil and Benshoff 227). The father of the groom, including the groom himself, delivers gifts to the father of the bride to reward him for such compromise. The gifts can take the form of money, cattle, or other valuable commodities. The marriage is composed of two rituals-- the betrothal and the wedding.
China and Indonesia abide by a well-built Buddhist faith that supports arranged marriages. Buddhism did not specify any clear-cut marital laws, but did explain how to achieve a successful marriage. Buddhism does not have any distinctive marriage ceremonial practice. For Buddhism, marriage is satisfaction and comfort and not a covenant or responsibility. Almost all marriages have the blessing of the father, who chooses a well-endowed partner in behalf of his daughter (Tischler 304). The marital union also must bring about gains to the parents of the groom and bride.
Almost all Middle Eastern cultures that abide by the Muslim faith or the Islamic law support arranged marriages. Iraq and Iran are two primary examples. Islamic devotees support the idea of arranged marriages by endorsement or sanction. Nevertheless, as stated by numerous Islamic scholars, the approval of both parties is mandatory. The father of a chaste, maiden bride should be the one who grants approval of the marriage (Adamczyk and Hayes 732). Majority of Islamic brides are virgins because the Islam rule clearly teaches that it is forbidden to have premarital sex. The couples are not allowed to be unaccompanied throughout the courting stage; a guardian or chaperon must always be in attendance throughout the courtship.
Hinduism believes that marriage is divine and a responsibility. Most societies that follow Hinduism practice arranged marriage, as well as forced marriage. Marriage in Hindu societies is organized by both parties for various reasons. Some arranged marriages are determined by social class. Economic advantages influence other Hindu arranged marriages (Ciren 114-5). In the contemporary type of Hinduism, adherents support arranged marriage, yet with the approval of the groom and bride, including the elders.
Comparison between Love Marriage and Arranged Marriage
In contrast to arranged marriages, marriages based on love are more widespread in Western countries. However, arranged marriages are more secured than love marriages. According to studies, divorces are more likely in love marriages than in arranged marriages, and there is a stronger family ties in the latter. In arranged marriages, the families will meticulously look at the background and reputation of the groom and bride (Madathil and Benshoff 223-4). On the other hand, in love marriages, the families of the couples do not focus on or give priority to the investigation of the bride's and groom's background. As regards romantic love, love must eventually arise in arranged marriages, since they will only have the opportunity to become better acquainted with each other after the wedding, whereas in a marriage based on love, the couples have already been romantically involved from the very start. Furthermore, in arranged marriages, the husband is superior over the wife, while in love marriages there appears to be an equal relationship.
A latest research studying the marital relationship of Indian couples from arranged marriage, and American couples from love marriages showed that with regard to marital fulfillment, both the Indian and American couples are quite the same. Nevertheless, their perception of the value of love is dissimilar. The American couples explained that being romantically involved was a clear sign of whether their marital relationship was satisfactory or will be successful. On the contrary, the Indian couples believed that love will come later on as they become more familiar with each other (Gala and Kapadia 122-4). Romantic love, for the Indian couples, was not an indicator of marital fulfillment or long-term quality of marital relationship.
Low rates of divorce in societies that practice arranged marriages suggest the effectiveness of arranged marriage. The increasing prevalence of divorce in societies with marriages based on love shows that possibly this kind of marriage is ineffective. Still, they endure. And in Eastern countries where arranged marriages are prevalent, such as India and China, marriages based on love becoming more and more widespread (Madathil and Benshoff 225). Due to cultural dissimilarities, it is hard to determine which kind of marriage is better. It is largely possible that arranged marriages will keep on diminishing as women in male-dominated cultures enjoy greater social and economic independence. This greater freedom will certainly lead to diminished pressure or need to get married.
Macro Level Conflict of Arranged Marriages
The fundamental conflict of arranged marriages is associated with gender power relations and stereotypes within the perspective of the family and the larger society. Profoundly ingrained within the family system is the obligation to control sexual behaviour and regulate women's sexuality. As the honour or reputation of the family is strongly intertwined with the sexual behaviour and marriage of its female members, arranged marriage seems to be brought about by a woman claiming or acting upon the right to decide whom to marry, or refusing the prospective spouse selected by her family (Jaiswal 28). Even though both men and women can be victimized by an arranged marriage, the family's reputation or honour is bound mainly to the woman's situation, making her much more susceptible or powerless to the enticement and intimidation into a marriage to which she opposes.
In fact, equality feminists argued that the presence of the caste system in Hindu cultures, which customarily restricts a person's selection of marriage partners to specific categories or groups, including laws within the Islamic faith which could limit marriage option to specific family-related or socioeconomic groups “make arranged marriage the most desirable form of marriage Marriage cannot be left to the young if these restrictions and preferences are to work. The institution of arranged marriage thus fits well with the social structure” (Majumdar 291). Modern feminism claims that parents from an urban, educated background also tend to choose a future marital partner for their children from their own caste, community, and religion. Hence, young individuals are granted with little or no chance to become acquainted with or choose their own marital spouses. Such social trends or practices are not viewed as an issue by majority of modern feminists; that marital union normally takes place without love is not a conflict (Gala and Kapadia 126). Domestic violence or abuse after marriage, as well as that which arises from an unreasonable imposition of dowry is a conflict. The business-like nature of arranged marriage is opposed, yet arranged marriage is left unchallenged.
Several modern feminists are reevaluating dowry and argue that it must be treated as a legitimate heirloom of the daughter from her father in a culture of inheritance wherein women are deprived of land inheritance. Other feminists argue that the existence of dowry carries detestable messages about women's value (Cook 62). A female member is believed to be a liability or burden to the family; hence the family that will receive her after marriage should be compensated for the transfer of such liability. In providing the dowry, the bride's family is basically making a payment for her comfort and security with another family; yet the woman afterward becomes a captive of the craving of her in-laws for a continuous flow of riches. Even after getting married, the family of the bride is still “under compulsion and heavy pressure” (Majumdar 292) to keep on delivering gifts to the family of the groom. In fact, “in the first few years of marriage, the girl's treatment in her husband's house is linked to these gifts” (Oldenburg and Talwar 9). Such state of affair reveals the gendered conflict inherent in the tradition of arranged marriage.
Conflict Resolution
Arranged marriage promotes and reinforces gender inequality, abuse, and violence. The international community has considered arranged marriage as an adverse cultural tradition and has exerted efforts to discourage or put an end to this custom. There must be a change mechanism which will necessitate a formation of an encouraging environment, the implementation of preventative measures, and the exercise of a rights education model. Citizens are privileged to have their rights guarantee and safeguarded either by means of national laws or constitutional mandates (Cook 14-15). Thus, female members of a society believe that their rights will be secured and defended by their governments because they are citizens themselves. Human rights laws and principles also demand that rights of the minorities be safeguarded. In principle therefore, women must be sheltered from being coerced into arranged marriages.
Human rights groups and the international community have tried to resolve the gendered conflict inherent in arranged marriages. The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women and the Committee on the Convention of the Rights of the Child has paid a great deal of attention to the formal registration of marriages and the legal marrying age (Cook 15). Hence, there is a responsibility on governments to establish national laws in accordance to these mechanisms and to make sure that the law is put into effect. Numerous countries that adopt these instruments discard important provisions or do not make sure that the laws are implemented and, thereby, promote, gender inequality.
Since the 1950s, the United Nations has challenged and opposed the tradition of arranged marriage for being contrary to the ideals of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNDHR) and the UN Charter. The UNDHR of 1948 states that “men and women of full age [] have the right to marriage and that marriage shall be entered into only with the free and full consent of the intending spouses” (Halstead 257). The International Covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural (ICESCR) and on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) of 1966 choose the same written expressions to emphasize such right (Ross 94). The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery of 1956 demands every state member of the Convention to carry out all needed and feasible legislation and other mechanisms to accomplish successfully and as quickly as possible the full elimination or rejection of, among other practices, different traditions and institutions (Ross 636) which comprise arranged marriage.
In India, the measures toward resolution of the gendered conflict intrinsic in arranged marriages began when Britain occupied India in the 1700s. The British administrator made an attempt to instill Western cultural practices into the Indian culture but was prevented by Hinduism (Ciren et al. 117). The impact of Hinduism was quite strongly ingrained in the minds of the Indian people and their larger society, which made it almost impossible to eliminate the prejudiced treatment of women and their ideas and perspective of marriage (Ciren et al. 117). Even though the Indian government established and implemented legislative measures to safeguard the rights of women there is still almost no development within the Indian society. Although the monogamous practice-- one wife, one husband-- was preserved, the path to gender equality remains too distant and problematic.
As expressively argued by Jiao (2012), “Women in the movies are liberated, but women in the real world are still constrained” (as cited in Ciren et al. 117). However, an important fact that should be mentioned and considered is that the wealthier the region or community is, the greater freedom or autonomy it experiences. In impoverished societies, arranged marriages are still prevalent. Young individuals looking for romantic love would be harshly punished by the native population while in urban areas youngsters largely experience greater autonomy in choosing their marital partners. The Committee on the Status of Women in India (CSWI) thoroughly questioned and opposed the incompetent Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 (Majumdar 292) and proposed several recommendations for improving it.
The CSWI also advocated the importance of raising social awareness “particularly amongst women, to enable them to understand that by encouraging dowry they are perpetuating the inequality of the sexes” (Majumdar 292). The Committee demanded a strengthening of women's self-worth. It also claimed that in order to put an end to the practice of dowry there must be better employment opportunities for women and a reevaluation of the importance of housekeeping or domestic responsibilities (Oldenburg and Talwar 58). Therefore, in order to resolve such gendered conflict public opinion must be mobilized, women must be informed or educated of their legal rights, and abusive social institutions must be reformed or totally abolished.
Recommendations and Conclusions
Even though prevention could be a major emphasis of arranged marriage conflict resolutions, it is highly important to provide assistance to women who were victimized by arranged marriage. Interventions must be carried out that sponsor health services and family planning education by engaging health care professionals, colleagues, and family heads. Institutions or agencies must be accessible that provide assistance, support, and counseling to arranged marriage brides, and these must be facilities for women who have fled from their families. Advocacy is crucial to all forms of intervention to resolve conflicts inherent in arranged marriages because of its capability to influence a huge number of people and build a favorable environment for action.
Conflict resolution programs intended to eliminate arranged marriages and uphold dignity and safeguard women's rights must move toward public policy reform and changes in perspectives on arranged marriages with the decisive objective of decreasing the prevalence of this type of marriage. Interventions have to implement measures that will both discourage arranged marriages and improve the circumstances of those victimized by this marriage tradition. However, it is also important to bear in mind that not all arranged marriages require support and assistance. As stated beforehand, arranged marriages tend to be more stable and stronger than marriages based on love. Arranged marriages only become problematic, as explained by contemporary feminists, when they involve the degradation of women's self-worth. Gendered conflict intrinsic to the tradition of arranged marriages can be effectively resolved through national and international advocacy.
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