Abstract
Forensic Science has long found important application in a criminal investigation, and its correct usage will enhance its effectiveness in crime detection. The use of forensic science in intelligence has allowed the possibility of crime scene reconstruction, identification of a suspect and the elements therein. Law enforcement has gone a notch higher in crime investigation in the sense that scouring for limited evidence at crime scenes has been made possible long after the perfect crime has taken place. The sole purpose of finding the obscure evidence is to have the criminals responsible brought to book and as a result, prevailing of justice taking effect. The investigation process requires a commitment of staff at various levels who work in forensic laboratories with determination to achieve something at the end of the day. Training for adequate proficiency in the field is an ongoing process and as a result, competency is gained. Accreditation, standardization, and de-contextualization are critical processes that encompass the field of legal and economic setting. For scientific objectivity and efficiency to exist, there must be a guide that governs the process of forensic evidence collection analysis, interpretation and reporting.
Forensic Science
Introduction
Forensic science is a vital subject when it comes to providing both scientific and technical knowledge to judges, juries, criminal analysts, prosecutors, defense attorneys and intelligence officers, with information that aids in criminal justice. From smaller crimes such as thefts and burglaries to huge crimes such as serial murders and bombings, forensic science finds a broad application. Forensic science incorporates other subjects that are of importance in aiding criminal investigation like biochemistry, chemistry, biophysics, biotechnology and genetics. Forensic science is, in fact, becoming a critical resource in the field of intelligence, and its application will ensure prevention of crimes with a bias toward terrorism. Traditional disciplines in forensic science that are widely used include DNA and trace evidence as well as fingerprint technology. New topics in forensic science that have recently caught the attention of investigators are DNA typing, biometric scanning, electronic tracking of locations, geographical information systems (GIS) and data mining.
How Far has Forensic Technology Come From?
Forensic medicine was the first use of forensic science which dates back to the 5th century. Forensic Toxicology was the first application of new age application of forensic science (Houck & Siegel, 2010). Ever since the 1900s, strategies used in policing and intelligence have incorporated the use and technology of forensic science. Crime scene investigations operate within a legal framework as well as forensic science. The efficiency of the technology is what has made the technology stand out and grow into more intelligent procedures. The technology began from the time of the application of a magnifying glass in the investigation which was later followed by identification of shaky handwriting and then to the commonly applied, double-stranded DNA helices. Traditional forensic evidence was relied on mostly which has begun to change gradually owing to the dawn of the new age forensic investigation methods which are noted above (Murphy, 2007). Major contributions that relate to chemical profiling and further chemical linkage interpretation have been available since the 70s. Buildup from the chemical profiles is applicable today where new approaches towards the acquisition of chemical profiles and use of mathematics application in noting similarities have become of importance (Esseiva et al., 2007).
Why forensic technology?
Forensic science is the application of physical and natural sciences in a bid to resolve legal conflicts that arise which end in the courtroom in most instances. The technology is also applied in litigation of civil background as well as solving of other regulatory issues. Exhibits are drawn from photographic, numerical and descriptive characteristics of the body of potential suspects, witnesses and the victims (McCartney, 2006). The samples range from minute particles to enormous pieces of evidence. There are times when impeachment of material evidence may occur false prosecution reports, ongoing criminal charges, parole of witnesses including their probation, evidence that attempts to contradict witnesses of a prosecution outlook as well as the evidence that undermines the expertise of prosecution witnesses. Evidence against the witness untruthfulness, bias of racial or religious perspectives, promises and or offers to the said witnesses are also part of reasons for witness impeachment.
Incorporation of Ethics in Criminal Investigation
Professional ethics are important in a work environment and criminal investigation; the tune is the same. Previous failings in a criminal investigation are the reasons as to why the need for having a restatement of the fundamentals of ethics an important topic. Dishonorable conducts have taken place while in a criminal investigation, and a quick glance of some of these negative conducts are planting of evidence for the purpose of trapping a defendant, falsification of laboratory results and documents and charging for the outcome of a given trial. These have happened in the criminal investigation sector and prompted the need for having ethics practiced in the said investigation (Fisher & Fisher, 2012). These wrong doings can be categorized in multiple ways, and the sad part is that some of the wrong doings cane be treated as criminal felonies which could attract a criminal penalty. Some are treated as actions of negligence and could attract a penalty such as suspension, expulsion or termination. Attending professional seminars is just but one way of building professional ethics in the field.
A Crime Scene
Crime scenes are the subjects of media attention according to White, and Royal Society of Chemistry (2010). These settings provide the basis as to where forensic science starts being operational. They are in fact presented to criminal investigators who reveal a lot of information about a particular evidence and mostly started from nothing or unknowns but with joining the dots, pieces of information are pieced for the establishment of sound and concrete information. In a given crime scene, the crime investigator is expected to pick important pieces of evidence, wrap it in cotton wool and further deliver the evidence to a forensic lab. Two threats that are major and of which has a potential to affect the integrity of the forensic sample must be looked into. These are a loss of continuity threat as well as the contamination risk (White & Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010). Any possibility of occurrence of the mentioned threats jeopardizes the reputation of the forensic exhibit while in the quest for criminal justice. The striking feature of forensic science is that the crime scene can be as minute as a mark of a mouth bite, and can as well be as large as a huge geographical area.
There are reasons for conducting crime scenes investigations. The reasons can be attributed to the identification of people involved in a particular crime of interest, substantiation of the purpose of the offense, corroboration of chronological accounts, for intelligence purposes and service of justice especially to the victim alive and the loved ones of the victim, mostly when the victim is deceased. Crime scenes are examined in such a manner that the legal framework is adhered to. Search warrants may or may not be issued in certain instances. For health and safety purposes, crime scenes are investigated. This is because of the situation where a crime scene may be deemed as being unsafe and so extra caution is observed when investigators enter into and out of such scenes. During exhibit selection, caution must be observed during the collection, examination, preservation and recording of forensic exhibits which as a result find themselves in the courtroom as pieces of evidence. Recovery and exhibit packaging ought to be done in such a manner that maintains the integrity of the exhibit. Accurate recording of crime evidence before it is tampered with is critical as well as the preservation of the forensic evidence is crucial in maintaining the integrity of the exhibit.
Crime Scene Reconstruction
The reconstruction of a crime scene is a critical activity which is deemed to be labor intensive for police investigators (Se & Jasiobedzki, 2005). Currently, investigators spend time in the crime scene taking some form of measurements and also photos. After collection of the exhibits, the investigators then use computers and programs therein to identify the drawings of a crime scene manually. Photorealistic 3-dimensional calibrated models aid crime scene reconstruction. The models mentioned above have been part of the milestones of research in forensic science. A handheld device is applied in forensic reconstruction can compromise the investigation in the sense that the user can manipulate the device and as a result, optimal view of a scene and coverage is crucial. The retrievable 3D measurements can be applied and converted for further manipulation. Modeling can be at the environmental level or an object. This new and modern crime reconstruction technique is coupled with other traditional crime scene reconstruction techniques.
When investigating a crime scene, three factors are thought of, at least according to White, and Royal Society of Chemistry (2010). The factors that come into play are whether a crime has been committed, the individual or group of people who are responsible, if the responsible person is identifiable, and whether the individual has enough evidence that point out to the culprit that would assist during a prosecution. In a bid to answer the above questions, a team of experts works together having had a consensus ad idem.
There are instances however when identification of whether a crime has taken place or not. Scientific examination has in fact been used to make it know to a criminal investigator that a particular is a crime scene (White, & Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010). A forensic analysis of a captured drug can help to identify alleged possession of an illicit drug. A vaginal swab can be used to identify the offender’s semen which can then be investigated against a DNA match whether the suspect is culpable or not in determining a sex crime against a rape victim. The presence of semen is a step closer to determining the identity of the possible suspect given that its presence on an underage girl corresponds to the potential of sexual activity. Doping is identifiable from athletes by use of forensic science and can result in stripping of awards given before doping. Forensic science can be used to identify the drivers under the influence of alcohol as well as its measurable content determination in a motorist (White, & Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010).
Culprit Identification
In the determination of the actual identity of the suspects, certain forensic techniques are applicable. With the presence of a latent fingerprint in a crime scene, identification of a criminal is possible with the data of a suspect is available in the database. Lip prints have found usage in both civil and criminal cases and are as reliable as the determination of fingerprints in criminal identification. This method can be used when other traditional methods of identification are available for identification of a criminal (Saraswathi, Mishra & Ranganathan, 2009). For crimes that require DNA profiling, identification of responsible culprits is made possible where the DNA profiles of the suspects exist in the database. Body fluids such as blood, and semen left and located at the crime scene by investigators can be used in suspect identification in offenses such as murder and sexual assaults (Virkler & Lednev, 2009). These bodily fluids contain valuable contents of DNA proof which can well identify a would-be perpetrator or victim as well as identify and free innocent persons. There are instances where accurate identification of culprits may be limited during a criminal examination. Provision of leads avails a guide to a criminal investigator when linking a perpetrator to a crime.
Determination of Perpetrator Responsibility
In the actual linking of a possible perpetrator to a given crime, an investigator seeks the advice and looks upon the forensic scientist in the quest to establish a case based on concrete and sound evidence. The expert’s report has the capability to confer the suspect as either guilty or has the power to prove the innocence of an individual. Any given scientific examination addresses two major aspects scientific analysis of evidence left on the victim or at the crime scene and identification of the suspect’s materials such as clothing and from there, determining the victim’s characteristics, or from the crime scene.
Characteristics of the Suspect
Evidence from the victim can be drawn from a biological, physical, and chemical outlook. The evidence can be used to link the suspect to the crime. Such materials link suspects to their involvement in the crime scene. Semen, saliva, blood, lip prints, finger prints, hair, teeth or nails are human characteristics which if found in a crime scene, are priceless in perpetrator identification. Clothing fibers or even sole print of shoes links an individual to a given crime scene as well as materials that portray the occupation of the culprit are of importance in a criminal investigation. Marks of car tyres, as well as oil drips, have the potential of providing links to the suspect’s vehicle to a crime setting where information such a location of parking and direction of driving can be noted. Chips of paint, plastic or glass from the suspect’s vehicle especially after a collision can be used as evidence (White, & Royal Society of Chemistry, 2010). Other relevant evidence may be drawn from weapons like guns, knives, machetes, axes and screwdrivers can give insight on the suspect’s involvement in the crime. Other unlikely forms of evidence can be traced from botanical evidence such as pollen grains. Insects noted from decaying bodies are other examples of unlikely evidence that can be used in the forensic examination, according to White, and Royal Society of Chemistry (2010).
Characteristics of the Victim
A crime scene can be located in multiple places, and a particular search has the capability to bring forth identification of useful information. Domestic buildings may house evidence such as paintings, glass, crockery, furnishing, plastic and metallic ware. Additionally, commercial buildings come into play when considering local buildings and materials evident in the processes. The external environment may provide a casing for forensic evidence and in this case, fields, soils, grass, wood, vegetation, waste ground and other miscellaneous debris are critical in crime and criminal identification. In the case of a dead or a living victim, biological characteristics find use, as well as cloth characteristic evidence (White and Royal Society of Chemistry 2010). All the possibilities mentioned above are notable when accounts and circumstances leading to the unfolding of a particular crime are possible. Otherwise, in a single and limited case, such information would be rather difficult to identify.
Evidence Classification Link and Synthesis
A trace exhibit is compared to existing exhibitions to make an inference during evidence classification of the type of a link. For there to be insight on the class of evidence, the source is of importance for facilitation of the comparison process (Ribaux, Walsh, & Margot, 2006). Extraction and comparison of the trace ought to be done. The other aspect is the comparison of the evidence to other multiple sources that may be present. This will eliminate the chances of ambiguity especially in the case of mixed and partial DNA. A list of possible DNA mix sources has to be compiled during the exercise. A list of possible relatives is also important and in this sense, relatives of the source can be compiled in a list. Non-autosomal DNA markers are of importance during the preparation of the relations list.
Synthesis of the data obtained from DNA inference is then done. In this exercise, with the above information and the outcome therein, a blueprint for forensic intelligence that is majorly based on reasoning that is analogical. Consideration of traces individually is noted to be undesirable in this case, because of the possibility of endangering the objectivity of the forensic science project. Assessment, in a tactful manner, of forensic evidence, is the next key procedure after information synthesis. Adequate communication platforms provide avenues for good communication and are critical in the provision of timely modus operandi, for the insight on current forensic information and investigations. The need for communication amongst the relevant stakeholders of forensic information portrays that, forensic intelligence and forensic cannot be studied and or utilized in isolation.
After a given investigation as noted above, there is added value that is achieved. This is about the hypotheses that were set in place, prior, by the criminal investigators in the quest to establish a criminal case. The benefits that accrue from an investigation are the actual confirmation of the hypotheses that were set in place during a particular investigative study. Apart from that, identification of DNA trends becomes possible as a result of an investigation (Esseiva et al., 2007). Links are provided for cases that at one point had hit a dead end, and the outcome is a brighter note towards criminal prosecution.
Conclusion
Forensic science is a vital subject that is applicable to criminal investigation. The application of this science traces back to the 5th century. The science is gradually developing and is becoming a wider subject. This field taps knowledge from biology, chemistry, genetics, biotechnology, anthropology, biochemistry among other important subjects of interest. Traditional methods of criminal profiling have long been used . However, new technology has been introduced which aid in the criminal investigation and this shows the growth of the science. Forensic science has been linked to intelligence as a critical intelligence resource and in fact, the two subjects go hand in hand during investigations. Forensic science has been able to provide evidence for a given crime by the identification and reconstruction of a crime scene. From the crime scene reconstruction, identification of responsible perpetrators has been facilitated by the application of forensic science fundamentals. Identification of a culprit, as noted above can be facilitated by use of characteristics from both the suspect and the victim collected at the crime scene. As mentioned earlier, knowledge of the chronology of events that matured to the crime is well important in the provision of a link of a suspect to a crime and as a result, obtaining of justice from further prosecution is likely to ensue. While carrying out a forensic investigation, there is a need for inclusion of professional ethics during operation. Training on the importance of the application of professional ethics is mandatory to forensic practitioners. This functions to enhance transparency, integrity, and honesty and as a result, trust and confidence in the service are built.
References
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