Chapters 12-15 Summarized in the
Form of Answers
1. What are single subject designs and why are they used.
In Single Subject Research Design or SSRD, a systematic and detailed analysis of a single system or individual is taken through recurring measurements. Although they belong the descriptive research group, SSRDs are experimental in nature. There are basically four types of SSRD, namely: a) Changing Criterion, b) ABAB or Reversal, c) Alternating Treatments, and d) Multiple Baseline. Data from such a research is represented and interpreted through simple plotted graphs. Operationalized 40 years ago, the SSRD is used by researchers and educators extensively due to the benefits the systemized nature of the experimental analysis provides . SSRDs allow for a heightened degree of experimental rigor not found in traditional case studies that makes them all the more valuable. Also, a cause and effect relationship between treatment and behavior can be drawn by utilizing a single subject.
2. Pick two different designs for single subject studies and compare and contrast the rationale and the limitations for each.
The ABAB design consists of four phases, namely: a) baseline phase, b) treatment phase, c) return to baseline phase, and d) return to treatment phase. In other words, in this method of SSRD, there is scope to measure the effects of intervention twice instead of just once. This helps to track changes in a subject’s behavior when changes are made to the treatment. However, this method is not suitable when a treatment is expected to have long term or permanent effects. In addition, the ethicality of changing a treatment that is proven to be successful is questionable.
Multiple Baseline Designs, on the other hand, use a standard AB format, wherein the baseline remains the same across several participants. Such an approach is suitable when it is known that the behavior is non-reversible or may remain the same despite treatment changes. This method eliminates the need to have a return-to-baseline phase, as in the ABAB design. However, this method proves to be inaccurate when there is a difference between response or behavior and the other or between participants.
3. What is Exploratory and Descriptive Research?
Exploratory research is a preliminary inquest into a subject in order to attain better conceptual understanding, clarity of the nature of the problem and/or identifying variables the study is to be focused upon. It does not, however, identify a definitive course of action. There are several types of exploratory research, such as: a) Secondary data analysis, b) pilot studies, c) analysis of pre-existing pilot case studies, d) focus groups, and e) experience surveys.
As the name suggest, descriptive research is aimed specifically at identifying or describing clearly the research questions, designs and methods of data analysis that a particular study will follow. It is also used to describe the characteristics, behaviors and conditions of individuals and groups. Such a research is does not solve questions about cause and effect, it only describes the statistics from data collected. Descriptive Research is neither exclusively qualitative nor quantitative in nature. It can use elements of both forms of research methodologies in the same study. There are three basic forms of descriptive research, namely: a) Developmental Research, b) Normative Research, c) Qualitative Research, and d) Case Studies.
4. Explain Retrospective vs. Prospective.
A retrospective study revolves around examining the circumstances that were prevalent, including potential risks, which led to an outcome or event that has already taken place. It is not a predictive study but an evaluation of pre-established outcomes. As this form of study is prone to errors caused due to bias or confounding, it has been the target of criticism. However, when an uncommon outcome is identified, the scope for prospective study becomes far too large for it to be reasonable or feasible. This is where retrospective studies are most suitable. Such studies also prove useful in the following scenarios: a) to evaluate a rare outcome where prospective study is not feasible, and b) to urgently predict or measure the effect of an outcome.
A prospective study, unlike the retrospective method, relies on observing the development of situations or the sequence of events that may lead to an outcome. Instead of looking at events in the reverse order from a pre-defined outcome, the prospective study looks ahead in time to predict the outcome of events. The study generally requires several subjects to be observed for a prolonged period of time. Prospective studies, although less prone to errors of confounding and bias, are unsuitable where there is limited time for research and study.
5. List and explain two types of Descriptive Methods.
Developmental Research: In this form of descriptive method, people are observed over a period of time and changes in the development and behavior are noted and described. In the longitudinal method of developmental research, a subject is observed over a prolonged period of time and changes in behavior are marked. Considering that a single subject is being observed, most of its characteristics remain the same and the change taking place can be considered developmental. In the cross-sectional method, however, a group of subjects with varying levels of developments at any given point in time are observed and the difference between the various subjects is noted.
Normative Studies: This method is used to describe standard or typical values for characteristics of a given population . Such studies are generally aimed at studying specific cultures, age groups, gender or occupation, with findings being presented in the form of mean or averages within a particular set of values. Anything falling within this limit is deemed to be ‘normal. Hence, it is crucial that normative studies be validated as their findings are frequently used as foundations for future predictions or corrective intervention. If the standard being used is inaccurate, then, inadvertently, deviations cannot be measured correctly either. There is great scope for normative studies in the field of health sciences, with new measuring tools being developed. However, normative studies are prone to errors caused due to sampling bias.
6. What is Qualitative Research?
Qualitative research seeks to describe the complex nature of humans and how individuals perceive their own experiences within a specific social context . Instead of relying purely on numerical data, this research evaluates feedback taken in narrative form from the subjects through interviews, surveys, observation and questionnaires.
7. What is survey research?
Surveys consist of a single or a set of questions that are posed to multiple subjects in order to collect subjective or descriptive data. The questions may be presented in the form of a questionnaire for the subject to answer or by conducting a 1:1 interview. These interviews themselves can be conducted either face to face or over communication devices such as the telephone. Surveys allow for multiple data points to be collected within the target group while adhering to the main focus topic of the research.
8. Compare and contrast these types of surveys: Interviews vs. Questionnaires
Interviews require a researcher to personally ask questions of respondents and collect their feedback. Depending on the number of questions and the time taken to respond to them, interviews can last anywhere between a few minutes to a few hours. Such a survey can be conducted over the telephone or face to face. The accuracy and reliability of data collected through this method depends on the interviewer’s skill when asking questions as well as the subjects openness and honesty when answering them. Interviews can be time consuming and are not considered to be a cost effective method. They also fail to provide anonymity to subjects.
Questionnaires require subjects to answer a pre-decided set of questions posed in written or electronic formats. The need for an interviewer is eliminated and anonymity of respondents can be assured. In addition, not having to answer questions posed by a person allows better scope for genuine and frank answers, increasing the accuracy of the data collected. However, questionnaires fail to note more human traits that can be observed by an interviewer. Also, there is scope of erroneous answers in cases where subject misinterpret questions.
Works Cited
Dunlap, G., & Kern, L. (1997). The relevance of behavior analysis to special education. In J. L. Paul, M. Churton, H. Roselli-Kostoryz, W. Morse, K. Marfo, L. C., et al., Foundations of Special Education: Basic Knowledge Informing Research and Practice in Special Education (pp. 279-290). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Portney, L. G., & Watkins, M. P. (2009). Foundations of Clinical Research: Applications to Practice, Third Edition. New Jersey: Pearson/Prentice Hall Health.
