Introduction
The value of the ecosystem to survival of humankind cannot be overemphasized. Man has derived his food and water from the environment since time immemorial. The ecosystem has also provided humankind with clothing and shelter . On the other hand, the contribution of the human kind to natural scientific process like decomposition and reforestation has also had a positive contribution to the ecosystem . The relationship between man and his ecosystem needs to work at a mutually beneficial harmonious equilibrium. Unfortunately, in many instances the extremes of man have greatly shifted the equilibrium to levels perceived favorable to man. The fronting of man’s interests at the expense of the integrity of the ecosystem has become very harmful to the ecosystem with time. The impacts of man’s extreme exploitation of the environment without regard and efforts to conservation have not been without negative effects on the ecosystem. The Commonwealth marine reserve network in Australia has greatly contributed positively to the livelihood of the people who border these natural ecosystems.
This report examines some of the benefits the Commonwealth marine reserve network in Australia contribute to the people of Australia and the general Australian environment. It also identifies the extremes that have been associated with the influence of humankind that have led to degradation on the Commonwealth marine reserve network in Australia and recommends mitigation measures to prevent further degradation. The Commonwealth Marine reserves are distinctly dived into notable and distinct zones.
2 The Commonwealth Marine Ecosystem Services
The Common wealth marine reserves marine ecosystem contributes immensely to the lives of Australian inhabitants. The benefits drawn from the Australian coast contributes to the livelihoods of not only the coastal dwellers but the inland dwellers as well. This report outlines three major benefits drawn from these reserves
2.1 Tourism
The ocean ecosystem comprises so much that have been able to attract tourists from all walks of life. Both oceanic related recreational activities, marine physical features such as beautiful sandy beaches and marine biodiversity have all been at the centre of attention as far as tourism is concerned. Tourism benefits the local economy through the creation of jobs for the local people and contributes to the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
2.2 Fishing
The ocean has been, is, and will always be a great home for several species and kinds of fish. Fishes that are fit for human consumption and those that are not fit though can contribute to other benefits such as ornamental purposes are found in the ocean. Fishing contributes to the local livelihood as a means of food supply and as a job creating industry for the players involved.
2.3 Transport
For a very long time, the ocean has played an integral part as a platform for transnational transport system . Several tones of merchandize and a great number of passengers use sea transport to move from one country that borders a coastline to another country that borders a coastline through marine transport infrastructure.
3.0 Categorization of the Commonwealth Marine Reserves Ecosystem Services
With the consideration, that certain activities may cause harm to marine reserves it is important to categories the Commonwealth marine reserves services (benefits) to ensure only those activities that do not cause harm to a specific reserve are allowed to be carried out around that specific reserve . Based on the protection guidelines given by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), fishing and transport fall within the IUCN category VI in which a manage exploitation of the resources beneficial to human being are utilized. As indicated, the utilization of these marine resources must be well managed to prevent damage . Since tourism does not cause harm to any of the marine reserve ecosystem, it can fall within all the categories prescribed by the World Conservation Union.
4.0 Risks and Market Failure Facing the Commonwealth Marine Reserves Ecosystem Services
Because of the Human Pressures Exerted on the Marine ecosystem, several risk factors both in the present and possible market failure are imminent concerning the marine services that benefit those whose lives are either directly or indirectly dependent on the resources of this ecosystem. These risk factors include overfishing, climate change, pollution, marine nutrient content available to the biodiversity in these ecosystems and finally the reduction in the levels for dissolve oxygen .
4.1 Overfishing,
The increased fishing activities that were carried out at the Western Rock Lobster may have led to the failure of the lobster population to re-establish itself and as a result caused a great fall in the levels of subsequent fishing activities .
4.2 Pollution, Available Marine Nutrients, and Reduced Dissolved Oxygen
Pollution especially around the Great Barrier Reef resulting from land activities have not only compromised the amount of available nutrients available to the biodiversity component of the marine ecosystem but also decreased the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Improper disposal of agricultural chemicals have led to the increase of chemicals such as pesticides in the ocean waters . Since the era of the industrial revolution around the world, industries have been a significant part of human lives. Industries have created jobs and revenues and thus improved the living standards of populations. Unfortunately, industries have also contributed towards the degrading of the environment, ruining several ecosystems. Some of the industries located along coastal boarders may not observe effluent treatment and disposal best practices resulting to these effluents to be carried off into the marine ecosystem by such means such as surface runoff. In other dire instances, some industries discharge their effluents directly into the ocean. These effluents may be toxic to marine life and may greatly shift the balance of the marine ecosystem is supporting life.
Similarly, many people living in Australian coastal areas may contribute to pollution of the ocean ecosystem through careless disposal of wastes. The wastes may be solid or liquid. These wastes do have. The ocean floor has been found to have huge deposits of natural minerals and oil deposits that have encouraged man to interfere with marine life in the quest to extract these minerals. Much of the technology and methods that have been on use in pursuing these minerals have led to instances such discharge of heavy metals into the seawater. Similarly, oil extraction has severally led to oil spillage on the surface of the ocean water making the seawater uninhabitable by marine biodiversity .
4.3 Greenhouse Gases, Global Warming and Climate Change
It is quite evident that there are elevated levels of carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere . The increased level of Carbon dioxide in the global atmosphere has also increased the amount of Carbon dioxide dissolved in ocean waters including the marine areas of Australia . With the absorbed carbon dioxide, the ocean waters have become acidified and consequently affected proper development of the corals and other organisms that act as food sources for larger organisms. This will subsequently have a negative impact on the tourism industry both now and in the future because the forms of life in the Commonwealth marine reserves that attract tourists may be destroyed. Similarly, food products like fish and other seafood types may become depleted because of depletion of their food at the bottom of the food chain and thus negatively the socio-economic gains gotten from fishing. Sea storms are also frequent in acidified waters and as a result may make sea transport also become dangerous .
5.0 Possible Tradeoff and Market Failure
The benefits derived from sea transport may be difficult to trade off especially by the fact that it is possible to transport bulky items more efficiently through intercontinental marine transport system than any other channel of transport. Similarly, the consideration of replacing the marine conservation reserves and marine parks and other features of tourists’ interests by any other marine economic activity is not sufficiently worthwhile for two reasons. One, the marine conservation reserves and parks are a national revenue earner through tourism. Two, these reserves are also platforms for protecting and conserving any endangered biodiversity within these ecosystems. Finally it is possible to compete fishing with offshore oil exploration and extraction since both are able to provide employment opportunities, both may contribute to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and both can contribute to the livelihoods of all those involved whether directly or indirectly.
6.0 Market Based Instruments
Economic incentives are granted to users of environmental resources either in the form of price or markets to reduce undesirable effects especially on overuse of the target resources or other activities that degrade the environment for example reducing an incident of overfishing . Some of the market-based instruments that can be used to improve the marine ecosystems services such as tourism, fishing, and transport include provision of ease of access to hooks and baits instead of fishing nets that are non-discriminatory at their catch . Other instruments include financial incentives, provision of subsidies on less harmful equipments, establishment of assurance and insurance instruments and enforcement of a quota system especially for fishing . Implementation of market based instrument may face barriers such as the dilemma of immediate economic benefits associated with some of the overuse practices of exploitation of marine reserves resources, Nevertheless, they are a good effort at reducing irresponsible use. Some of the market based instruments are discussed below:
6.1 Subsidies and Financial Incentives
Subsidies may be implemented through the provision of reduced pricing of equipments that do not contribute to extensive harm or overuse of the available marine resources. For example hooks and baits may be availed at a much reduced price and alternatively harmful equipments like trawling nets made more expensive in order to encourage managed fishing using the hook and bait instead of the trawling net
6.2 Committing to Insurance Instruments
Another way of encouraging responsible exploitation of marine resources is by asking the players directly involved to commit to take insurance policy against possible risks against both harm to self and damage on the marine ecosystem . Thus, the occurrence of any in-eventualities is mitigated against.
The establishment of a quota system may help to regulate the maximum level of engagement that can be admissible for any economic activity that is dependent on the marine ecosystem . When the admissible levels are attained further engagements are stopped until a designated period is past. This can be implemented in such situations as those aimed at controlling overfishing, or sea vessels that may contribute to heavy spillage of oil or gasoline spillage in the sea.
7.0 Conclusion
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