Questions & Answers
Questions and Answers
Every theory must be proved by results of scientific studies. If the theory cannot be confirmed by scientific methods this theory is likely to be wrong. Learning styles theory was not proved by results of any researchers that are why scientist believes that the theory is only a one more psychological myth.
Riener & Willingham (2010) indicate that proponents of the idea of learning styles believe that if a teacher knows about learning styles of his/her students the teacher will be able to teach students effectively independently of the content of learning materials. According to the theory of learning styles, a person who, for example, has a visual learning style will be able to learn math, poetry, music, etc. if one receives information through visual sensory system.
Riener & Willingham (2010) indicate that this assumption seems inappropriate because we know that different people have different talents, abilities, interests. It means that most of the people will not begin to understand the math only because a teacher gives them information appropriate for their learning styles.
For example, if I find it difficult to understand the math, I will continue to experience difficulties in the study of this discipline regardless of whether the teacher will show me the pictures or offer me to listen to the information in the process of learning.
There is no also evidence that if students receive information in the mode of instruction appropriate for their learning preferences they will study better and the process of teaching will be more efficient.
Also, Riener & Willingham (2010) point out that while educators believe in the idea of learning styles and try to accommodate the idea to their pedagogical practice, they can neglect those learning theories which have been proved by scientific studies. So the idea of existing of learning styles can be harmful to some extent for students and teachers who believe in the theory.
Finally, we can note that a normal person from the first years of life learns new words, explore a surrounding world and develops using different sensory systems (visual, kinesthetic audial and other), so we can conclude that for people it is natural to use different sense organs to learn something new.
B) Describe why many psychologists believe that the idea that ‘hypnosis is a unique state of consciousness’ is a psychological myth.
Many psychologists believe that hypnosis is not a specific state of conscious because it is very similar to a placebo effect. The placebo effect can be recognized when improvement of an individual`s health, mood, capacities to do something, etc. happens not due to the real power of a particular influence but due to perceived power of it.
For example, in the case of hypnosis, a person can feel the lessening of painful symptoms, improving health not because a hypnotist has a real “magic” power but because this person believes that hypnotist has the power to improve a person`s health through sessions of hypnosis.
Another, reason why psychologists used to consider hypnosis as overestimated phenomenon is that there are no physiological markers of hypnosis. It means that there is no appropriate evidence that hypnosis physiologically differs significantly from other states of conscious.
For example, Diamond& Howe (2001) discussing results of several studies on the physiology of hypnosis indicate that there are no clear answers on the question about physiological changes during hypnosis.
Results obtained with use of fMRI and PET demonstrated significantly but inconsistent signs of physiological changes during hypnotic states. As researchers suppose, hypnosis may be associated with EEG alpha frequencies. However, results of different studies have not proved this assumption yet (Diamond& Howe, 2001).
Previously, it was assumed that hypnosis is similar to the sleep state. But modern studies demonstrated that this hypothesis was absolutely wrong: hypnotic state by its physiological signs has more similarities with the state of consciousness.
C) Are there such things as evidence for an effect of birth order on personality? Describe evidence for both points of view. What do you believe about this relationship?
Alfred Adler has been a psychologist who believed that birth order of children in one family significantly influences the development of a child`s personality. Adler created the theory about birth order, feelings of superiority and inferiority and listed characteristic of youngest, oldest children, etc.
Hjelle& Ziegler (1992) in their book indicated results of several studies on the association between a birth order of an individual and its personal characteristics. Belmont et al. conducted the study with 400 male participants. Researchers found a positive correlation between scores on the intelligence test and a birth order: elder children demonstrated higher scores of intelligence.
Wagner et al. indicated that the eldest children (firstborns) tend to become Presidents of USA or leaders in different professional areas more often than younger children do. Barry& Blane investigated the correlation between alcohol addiction and birth order. They concluded that youngest children of a family are more prone to become the addict on alcohol (Hjelle& Ziegler, 1992).
On the other hand, results of many other studies contradict with Adler`s ideas about “birth-order” influence on personality. For example, one study reviewed by Hjelle& Ziegler (1992) denied the Adler`s assumption that an only child in a family is more selfish. The results of the study demonstrated that individuals who were only children in their families cooperated with peers just like children who had siblings did.
Whitbourne (2013) points out that it is rather parents` stereotypes and biases about birth-order than birth-order itself which can influence significantly a child`s personality development. For example, if parents have stereotypes that a firstborn child should be a good leader they will demonstrate these expectations to their firstborn and, consequently, the firstborn will be likely to meet expectations of parents.
Hjelle& Ziegler (1992) also indicate that there are many studies on birth order influence on personality. However, results of these studies are very controversial and inconsistent because there are many other factors besides birth order which can interact with “birth-order” factor and influence the personality of a child. For example, it is possible that male firstborn are more predisposed to have leadership skills than female firstborn because of the gender identity.
D) What are the most compelling reasons for you to reject the idea that human memory works like a recording device, storing faithful copies of what you have experienced?
The idea that human memory works like recording device was developed due to a belief of Freud that our unconscious include and save memories about different event of our life, even about our early childhood. Also, there were some other investigations and evidence which supported the idea about memory as a recording device.
There are many pieces of evidence that process of recalling of information is more the process of reconstruction of information than the process of re-experiences some memory. People who have the uncommon ability of eidetic memory can recall information about every detail of a particular event or a particular moment of their life.
The process of recalling of people with eidetic memory is similar to the process of re-experiencing some moment of their life. However, eidetic memory, as it was said, is a very rare ability and most of the people do not have it (Keenan, 2/8/2012).
Bransford & Johnson (1972) conducted the study of how people recall details of a particular object in different contexts and conditions. Researchers demonstrated the picture of a house and gave the description of the house to participants of the experiment. When participants were asked to imagine that they wanted to buy the house or to rob the house, they recalled different details of the house (Keenan, 2/8/2012).
This result means that people reconstruct their memory accordingly to their actual needs, motivations, and goals. Different contexts of a situation encourage people to reconstruct and recall different details about an object.
Also, I support the idea that process of recalling is a process of reconstruction because of own experience and experience of my relative, friend, acquaintances. For example, when I try to remember where I put something I do it bit by bit. I recall separate details and parts of a particular memory. The process of recalling requires sometimes several days or several hours, etc.
One more fact which proves that our memory cannot work like a recording device is that as a rule we can remember a particular experience in every detail. Our memories are more likely to give us distorted information about a particular event, experience (Keenan, 2/8/2012).
E) Many people are strongly tied to the idea that a positive mental attitude can prevent, or even cure, illness. In what ways might they be correct to maintain a belief in this phenomenon? How might their belief be problematic for them?
People tend to believe in myths about cancer and positive attitudes because of movies such as “Secret”, books of Louise Hay, famous woman who indicated in her books that positive emotions and thoughts can help people to recover from different diseases or etc..
I personally believed in the power of positive attitudes because I witnessed the real life case of one 84-years-old woman who suffered from stomach cancer. When doctors diagnosed her cancer for the first time they assured the son of this woman that she would die in several months.
The son of this older woman decided not to tell his mother about her cancer and the imminent end of her life. So the woman came back home and continued to live her normal life without knowing about her disease. It was 2012 year when doctors diagnosed her with cancer. And she has died only several months ago. However, the reason of her death was not cancer but the heart disease.
On the one hand, the case described above is a demonstration of how the absence of negative attitudes toward the disease can influence it. On the other hand, results of scientific studies demonstrate that positive attitudes cannot cure cancer. Positive emotional states and attitudes are more likely to help people to cope with their diseases and less likely to cure the disease.
The information from lectures helped me to realize that there are negative effects of the idea that positive attitude can heal cancer. Cancer sufferers can experience a feeling of guilt because of the myth about positive attitudes. Cancer patients who believe in this myth will be likely to blame themselves in the case if they are not able to save positive attitudes and demonstrate positive emotions during development or the process of curing of their disease (Keenan, 3/23/2015).
References
Diamond, S. G., & Howe, R. D. (2001). Measuring hypnosis: Relating the subjective experience to systematic physiological changes. Retrieved October, 30, 2003.
Hjelle, L. A., & Ziegler, D. J. (1992). Personality theories: Basic assumptions, research, and applications , New York (McGraw-Hill Book Company), 603 p.
Keenan, T. (2/8/2012). Memory myths. PSYC9120: Psychology Fact &Fiction
Keenan, T. (11/5/2012). Consciousness myths. PSYC9120: Psychology Fact &Fiction
Keenan, T. (3/23/2015). Emotion myths. PSYC9120: Psychology Fact &Fiction
Riener, C., & Willingham, D. (2010). The myth of learning styles. Change: The magazine of higher learning, 42(5), 32-35.
Whitbourne, S. K. (2013). Is Birth Order Destiny. Retrieved from: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-age/201305/is-birth-order-destiny
