Literature Review
Prevalence of Absent Fathers
In the United States, the number of absentee fathers has been increasing. Whether this trend is due to factors such as work, divorce, out-of-wedlock births, never-married mothers, incarceration, or new family dynamics like changing gender roles in the family, it is known that fatherless children experience much high risk factors than their peers. According to the National Center for Fathering (2016), in the United States there are an estimated 24.7 million children living without their biological fathers. In the 1960’s only 5.3% of children were born out-of-wedlock, in 2010 that percent has risen to over 43%. The rise in the percentage of wedlock births positively correlates with the rising numbers of absent fathers (the National Center for Fathering, 2016).
According to Vespa, Lewis, and Kreider (2012) high percentages of Black, Hispanic and White children are living absent their biological fathers In the article “Parents Behind Bars, What Happens to Their Children?” it is suggested that in the United States many children have a parent that is either in jail or in prison (Cooper, 2015). According to Murphey and Cooper (2015), “The great majority of incarcerated parents (99 percent) are fathers” (p. 2).
The impact of father absenteeism on young females and males can be profound. L.Nielsen suggests that females, “receiving too little fathering also leads to more troubled, more unstable romantic relationships later in the daughter’s life. In college these daughters tend to have more trouble trusting and creating emotional intimacy with men” (Nielsen, 2011, p. 77). Similarly for males, “research has shown a positive father involvement is positively correlated with emotional, social, and positive development within [male] children” (Allen, Daly, 2007, p. 22).
Risk Factors
Research suggests a variety of risk factors for reduced involvement of the non-resident father including: the relationship with the mother, new relationships, and employment status. As clarified in Effects of Fathers’ Early Risk and Resilience on Paternal Engagement With 5-Year-Olds, it shares “findings that add to the growing body of research showing that the combination of non-residence and other risk factors may be associated with the most substantial declines in paternal engagement with children over time (Fagan et al., 2009). Risk factors are an important consideration because they may weaken fathers’ relationships with their children, particularly when fathers do not reside with the child”. In Castillo et al.’s (2013) article, the relationship between disadvantaged fathers’ employment status and father involvement is examined. The article examines employment more in depth than as a dichotomous state of employed or unemployed. The authors considered employment stability (a job that confers consistent hours) and workplace arrangements (how are schedules formed). The authors revealed that employment is an especially important factor that determines disadvantaged fathers’ involvement with their children. Employment serves as a buffer for disadvantaged fathers. The authors assert they believe the ability to fulfill financial responsibilities is an essential component to fatherhood. Results from the research delineated the positive relationship between paternal employment and father involvement with their children (Castillo et al., 2013, p. 381).Workplace arrangements was another component of the study conducted by Castillo et al. (2013). Workplace arrangements describes how shifts and hours are comprised. Rigid workplace arrangements dictate start and end times and even sometimes decide break times. Flexible work arrangements offer multiple start and end times, allow the employee to take lunch and breaks at their convenience, make it possible for the employee to leave work early, and/or work from home. Flexible workplace arrangements promote father involvement. Fathers who are offered these options have the flexibility to pick up their child after school, stay at home when their child is sick, and pick up their child from school in an emergency. Rigid workplace arrangements impede father child interactions. Stringent workplace arrangements may require the father to work while the child is awake or force the father to travel for work (Castillo, Sarver, & Welch, 2013, p. 384). The study compared employment stability and flexibility to past research. Interestingly, the study evidence is congruent with previous research.
The relationship between the mother and non-resident father may be foretelling of his future engagement with his children (Castillo & Sarver, 2012; Doherty, Kouneski, & Erickson, 1998; Fagan & Palkovitx, 2007; Sanyo, Smith & Lanigan, 2011). Research presented by Doherty, Kouneski, & Erickson, (1998) suggests that when the father-mother relationship is strained, the mother may limit or restrict the father’s contact with the children.
Whether or not the father-mother relationship remains sexual is also indicative to the level of involvement between the non-resident father and child (Fagan & Palkovitx, 2007; Sanyo, Smith & Lanigan, 2011). Researchers Fagan & Palkovitz (2007) results showed with statistical significance that non-resident fathers are less likely to engage their children if their relationship with the mother is no longer sexual. Sanyo, Smith & Lanigan (2011) found a 23% increase in the non-resident fathers’ involvement when his relationship with the mother remained sexual. A non-resident fathers’ involvement may also reduce after he starts a new romantic relationship or stepfathers a new child (Manning & Smock, 1999). Manning & Smock (1999) determined the frequency of visits to their non-resident children was negatively correlated with the father cohabiting with a new romantic partner, especially if this new partner has resident children. Their statistics showed that time spent with their nonresident children reduced by 69% after the father began cohabitating with a new romantic partner and reduced by 48% once the father began residing with a new child.
References
Amato, P. R., Meyers, C. E., & Emery, R. E. (2009). Changes in nonresident father-child contact from1976 to 2002. Family Relations, 58, 41 – 53.
Allen, S. M., & Daly, K. J. (2007). The effects of father involvement: An updated research summary of the evidence. Centre for Families, Work & Well-Being, University of Guelph.
Castillo, J. T., Welch, G. W., & Sarver, C. M. (2013). The Relationship Between Disadvantaged Fathers’ Employment Stability, Workplace Flexibility, and Involvement With Their Infant Children. Journal of Social Service Research, 39(3), 380-396.
Castillo, J. T., & Fenzl-Crossman, A. (2010). The relationship between non-marital fathers' social networks and social capital and father involvement. Child & Family Social Work, 15(1), 66-76.
Castillo, J. T., & Sarver, C. M. (2012). Nonresident fathers' social networks: The relationship
between social support and father involvement. Personal Relationships, 19(4), 759-774.
Cooper, D. M. (2015). Parents Behind Bars, What Happens to Their Children? Child Trends. Retrieved March 16, 2016, from www.childrentrends.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/2015-42ParentsBehindBars.pdf
Doherty, W. J., Kouneski, E. F., & Erickson, M. F. (1998). Responsible fathering: An overview and conceptual framework. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 60, 277–292.
Fagan, J., & Palkovitz, R. (2007). Unmarried, nonresident fathers’ involvement with their infants: A Father's’ Early Risk and Resilience 891 risk and resilience perspective. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 479 – 489
Fathering, N. C. (2016). The Extent of Fatherlessness. Retrieved March 16, 2016, from http://www.fathers.com/statistics-and-research/the-extent-of-fatherlessness/
Manning, W. D., & Smock, P. J. (1999). New Families and Nonresident Father-Child Visitation. Social Forces, 78(1), 87-117.
Nielsen, L. (2011). Divorced fathers and their daughters: A review of recent research. Journal of Divorce and Remarriage 52, 77-93.
Robbers, M. (2008). Facilitating fatherhood: A longitudinal examination of father involvement among young minority fathers. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal. Springer Science Business Media, LLC. 26. 121-134.
Sanyo, Y., Smith, S., & Lanigan, J. (2011). Predicting Presence and Level of Nonresident Fathers' Involvement in Infants' Lives: Mothers' Perspective. Journal Of Divorce & Remarriage, 52(5), 350-368.
Vespa, J. M. (August 2013). Family Structure and Children's Living Arrangements: 2010 Current population report U.S. census bureau July 1, 2012. Child Trends Data Banks. Retrieved March 16, 2016
