Aversive Control
Self efficacy is a construct that shares similar historical richness as Money attitude but, it has developed into one of the most essential studies of human behavior. Numerous researches on this topic have been designed to address the construct of self efficacy and just like Money Attitude, it leads to human behavior. For example, the management of chronic ailments often requires the person to take part in a number of behaviors that re self-care in nature. For example, a patient will not care about recovery from a health condition when they feel inadequate to influence a positive result, therefore their self efficacy deteriorate (Genesove & Mayer, 2001). The earliest evaluation of Self Efficacy is an intrinsic belief in one’s ability to achieve and accomplish tasks. Historically, Self-Efficacy has been identified as associated with students’ academic performance. An empirical evaluation concurs that the percentage of high level of education (62.4%) and the level of employment (51.4%) were significantly higher in high self-efficacy groups than in low self-efficacy groups or moderate self-efficacy groups.In one developmental study researchers continue to evaluate how self efficacy is developed. Self Efficacy plays an ever increasingly important role in the overall process of mankind’s assessment of their ability and will power to complete tasks and rise above difficulties (Genesove & Mayer, 2001).
The study of Money Attitude has a long and rich history among families, organizations, the business world, and the history of mankind. The analysis of Money Attitude remains a consistent pattern but varying perception among people of all ages, race, and socio-economic status. The literature review shows that money attitudes greatly influence the manner in which people of all backgrounds view and react to money and money situations. There exist plenty of reasons to analyze Money Attitude, because some view money as a symbol of success, while others view money as a curse or the root of evil (Solomon, Holmes, & McCaul, 1980)
For the purpose of this study, Money Attitude (DV) refers to the perception, outlook, feeling, and sensitivity towards money and money situations. Additionally, money attitude is defined as behavioral patterns sustained as a result of an individual’s attitude towards money. The following section will discuss the history and overview of the dependant variable The basic attitude towards money above all else is to meet the traditional obligation to one's blood family (Barrett, 1969). This early view of money attitude narrows the use of money to self supporting and self indulging. Thus money attitude purports that a person must allocate money primarily on family essentials and necessities Slightly contrary to Barrett’s study, a study of money attitude considered the opinions of 250 actual living kidney donors regarding financial incentives for making kidney donations and realized that the majority was not in favor of any reward for themselves while about half of donors were seeking financial incentives for donating anonymously (Genesove, & Mayer, 2001).
A long neglected psychological research suggests that money attitudes influence consumer decision making and the processing of information, which can happen to be active if the consumers exchange relations or think of money situations. Numerous factors have been found to have an effect that is causal on people’s Money Attitude. Antecedents of money attitude include; how people’s perception of money and the level of influence that money has on the people who use and earn it. The information gleaned here helps the researcher to understand the connection between people money attitudes and their general behavior. The present research in addition looks at the impact of person’s attitudes on money both on the positive and negative behaviors and positive behaviors. According to a study, it is the ultimate desire that one's neighbors earn less money than they (Saklofske, Michayluk, & Randhawa, 1988).
In other words, people in general will rather make more money as compared to their neighbors. Moore & Carpenter in addition, iterated the concept that power-prestige and money anxiety positively impact the negative behavior of credit while distrust on the other hand, positively impacts credit behavior that is positive. Correlation analyses showed that materialism had a positive relationship with an inadequate feeling in regards to money and the tendency to use money as a means of self-aggrandizement. Materialism was negatively related to the conservative approach to money, and was unrelated to negative emotions toward money. He also discussed how the tie that exists between possessions and money may be mediated by materialism and raise concerns on the relationship existing between compulsive shopping and materialism (Hardy, 1998).
In the past money was always used an even exchange for goods and services. Now money has become the measure of identity, prestige, and personal worth. Gospel teachings about money and personal finance and comfortable living conditions of Jesuits, despite their vow and practice of poverty; sharing with the poor as money's primary use; provides another intricate view of money attitude (Solomon, Holmes, & McCaul, 1980)
In contrast, gamblers reported massive money obsessions as an important pointer of power, prestige and means of amassing wealth. Consequently however, problem gamblers reported high anxiety levels over money, both in regard to looking at money as a tool of reducing anxiety and worrying about the money itself. Another outcome in the literature is that Money attitude not only correlates with self efficacy; it forms a bond between self worth as relating to how much money one earns or possesses (Genesove & Mayer, 2001).
Another outcome in the literature is that there is limited support for the hypothesis that self efficacy relating to money attitude, which is more likely to support perceived inadequacy and low self esteem suffered by some middle class adolescence as wells as the rate of depression associated with fame and wealth among Hollywood actors and actresses (Genesove & Mayer, 2001). A related study finds that Money Attitude or perceptions matter greatly because even people who are objectively well off can still feel financially insecure. Money Attitude has been the subject of many studies. A focus on creating ‘portraits of donors’ generates interesting insights into money attitude and financial insecurity in rich US households where only 21 percent of those households with a net-worth of $50m or more reported feeling 'extremely financially secure while 11 percent of the same households had a feeling of insecurity at a certain degree. Brooks also describes this objectively puzzling attitude towards money; he finds that the upper income class Americans describe themselves not as being in a position to afford to give because they have car loans, mortgages and children in college (Solomon, Holmes, & McCaul, 1980)
Another important issue surfaces in the literature review and research supports the concept that self efficacy is a belief system that is learned and developed. Because this study is specifically interested in the nonprofit sector, one approach to the literature review of the research was to explore the findings of people attitude toward money in relation to their level of self efficacy money situations (Saklofske, Michayluk, & Randhawa, 1988).
Intrinsic motivation is based on the need to be self-determined and suggested that reward which are widely used as instrument of control, which often co-op people’s self determination and initiate different motivational processes, has been considered an significant determinant of attitude towards money and self-efficacy (Palmquist, Carlbring, Andersson, 2007).
A well motivated individual will overcome low self efficaciousness and thrive through tough situations for the end result (reward). The literature also shows how the human behavior theory of Drive and motivation interdependence continues to develop. de Wit and Dickinson (2009) concluded following their research that, ‘consequence and fear’ ignite strong motivation to heighten self efficacious disposition and interactions followed by a sequence of exchanges in which individuals react in money situations (Wulfert, Blanchard, Freidenberg, Martell, 2006).
When undertaking this study, one purpose was to explore the reason why people in some instances react negatively or positively in money situations. It was the researcher’s hope to understand the dynamics of human behavior with regards to money and to explore its correlation with people’s tenacity (self-efficacy) to accomplish critical tasks (Hardy, 1998). Unlike other evolutionary approaches to behavior, such as evolutionary psychology, HBE assumes that the behavioral phenotype is highly plastic, resulting from a generalized perceptive and cognitive capacity that has been honed by natural selection (Rochlen, Zack, & Speyer, 2004).
As the literature review showed, the answer was to apply positive human behavioral scholarship. Human behavioral studies show that people tend to achieve basic and safety needs before other needs independent of their tenacity, belief, and confidence level. However, fulfilling the various needs has relatively independent effects on a person's Subjective Well-Being. They further explained human behavior & the social environment theories Scholarship are interdisciplinary perspectives, drawing not only from psychology and anthropology, but also from sociology, and social work (Genesove & Mayer, 2001).
At this point, it is clear that the literature review has guided the researcher through the last century to see how the constructs of Money Attitude (DV) and self-Efficacy (IV) have developed and with a better understanding of how the theoretical framework connects the dependent variable to the independent variable, thus the researcher is ready to move on to the study of the hypothesis (Hardy, 1998).
Classical conditioning is one of the major tools applied in advertisements. Car dealers often – if not always – employ models in the advertisement of vehicles, especially where men are the main target group. Usually, the person creating the advertisement ensures that the car is presented alongside a model or sexy woman. The main intent here is to ensure that there is a feeling created towards the car. Unlike in advertisements where models are not utilized, the advertisements with sexy models utilize classical conditioning in the course of presenting the advertisement. In such an advertisement, the unconditioned stimulus is the sexy woman whereas the unconditioned response is the sexual arousal or pleasurable feeling created at the sight or presentation of the sexy model. The conditioned stimulus is presented in the car and this is brought out effectively after a number of repeated presentations with the sexy model. The conditioned response is presented in the pleasurable feeling at the sight of the automobile or object being advertised (Cassady & Eissa, 2008).
Within the business arena – and mostly in the organizational setting – there are different application of operant conditioning. Defined as a systematic program of punishments and rewards aimed at inducing and or maintaining certain behaviors, operant conditioning is employed within the organizational setting as a tool for motivation. A person in an authoritative position can choose to reward those being led through positive reinforcement such as bonuses, paychecks, and promotions for work well done. Positive punishment for unsatisfactory performance within the workplace is also one of the ways through which operant conditioning is utilized. Here, demotion and unpleasant meetings with the company authority are some of the forms of positive punishment. Negative punishment can involve actions such as restrictions from valued project as a result of unsatisfactory performance. Social learning is one of the important factors in modern day business. Defined as a set of theories that deal with how people learn within contexts, social theory is employed in business to explain the various ways through which leaders and those being led interact with each other. Work is ever becoming complex and this is as a result of the ever increasing interconnectedness within the global platform. There are business activities that are being automated as a result of social leaning. For instance, the work of bank tellers is as a result of automation of simple tasks. Outsourcing has become a popular business practice as a result of social learning. Within the business arena, some of the complicated tasks are usually outsourced and businesses have learnt to build their advantage through increasing creativity and utilizing the complexity of work processing. All these are important elements of social learning in business (Cassady & Eissa, 2008).
Although it is common within the aviation arena, the SHEL model has expanded its applicability to involve other disciplines. In aviation, the shell model is defined as the relationship brought out in the various human factors within the aviation environment. Developed by Edwards in 1972, the shell model brings together software, hardware, environment, and liveware in explaining different concepts. A pilot in the cockpit of a commercial airliner, flying a Boeing 747 from Tampa to Los Angeles presents a scenario through which the components of this concept can be analyzed. Here, the software is represented by the organization policies dictating the flying operations as well as the manuals provided for operating an Boeing 747 airplane. Hardware is presented in the various tools within the cockpit that are utilized in the physical control of the airplane. The various tangible objects include communication devices as well as measurement and observation tools. The environment in this scenario is presented in the noise, turbulences, and all the elements making up the weather. The liveware is presented in the communication that exists between the pilot and the control tower as well as the pilot and the co-pilot inside the cockpit (Genesove & Mayer, 2001).
It is very important to understand the foundation on which the morality of lying is brought about. The morality of lying is founded on the interplay that exists with regards to the ethical element behind the act – the reason for lying – and the consequences of the act. In the cases where the consequences of lying – on grounds of ethics – greatly outweigh the action of lying, the action of lying is considered to be morally upright. For instance, if a parent were to be attacked by burglars in their home and the child fortunately hid from the burglars, the parent is expected to protect the child from any form of harm. If the burglars should ask the parent where the child is, the parent can lie about the location of the child so as to protect the child from harm. Here, the parent will have committed the crime of lying. On an ethical analytical point of view, the act of lying will still be view as lying, but the consequences of the act of lying far much outweigh the consequences of the act of lying. In the event the parent would give up the truth about the child’s location and the child is presented to harm – in any manner or capacity – there would be no – sane – explanation of the parent’s action. Although the parent would have done what is right, the consequences of their action would far much outweigh – negatively – the impact of their good deed. For this reason, ethics is forced to classify the entire action of lying as being moral due to the consequences of the action.
In summary of the construct of Self-Efficacy, the literature disclose Psychological responses in their success at integrating technology, that the beliefs of self-efficacy are a vital and measurable belief components that not only influence the integration of technology, but also the instructional strategies that are effective in raising the beliefs of self-efficacy that are relevant to the integration of technology (Cassady & Eissa, 2008).
References
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