In fact, there are considerable differences in physical activity, emotions, interests, perception between men and women. Numerous scientists have explored and discussed if these differences are conditioned by social factors or biology. To make it clear, some think that it is biology that defines human behavior, tastes, skills etc.; others adhere to the opinion that society is a more influential impact on formation of behavior. In other words, socially created features of men and women are called "gender", "sex" is determined by biology. Unfortunately, nowadays it is possible to see numerous mistakes and discrepancies concerning the use of both terms in scientific literature, health policy etc. This paper focuses on researches and studies concerning why sex differences emerge and why some individuals are more sex-typed than others.
Genetically, person's sex is determined by 46 X and Y chromosomes, where men are associated with 46XY while women with 46XX. "The biological differences between men and women result from two processes: sex determination and differentiation" (WHO, p.2). Sex differentiation is characterized by processes which involve numerous genetically regulated, hierarchical developmental steps. Presence of Y chromosome means development of early embryonic testes, while its absence results in ovaries development.
Many people associate men and women with certain characteristics and manners commonly accepted by society. For example, there were studies where parents were asked to estimate physical abilities of their children: though there were no significant differences between results of boys and girls, there were differences in the way how parents perceived their child's ability. Generally, sons are considered to be more physically capable, that follows from the common belief that boys are inherently more athletic. Though it was found that one's environment makes a significant contribution to biological processes and gender development, there is an opposite opinion which consists in following: the role of parent's attitude in sex-typed behavior is overestimated.
Gender is a social structure which is changed over time through various cultures. It is known that gender is taken through different points of view in various cultures, sometimes such cultural differences are rather considerable and discrepant.
The chapter "Basic Concepts: Sex and Gender, Masculinity and Feminity, Patriarchy" includes thorough explanations of main concepts related to the given question. It is underlined that terms sex and gender are conceptually different, "the biological differences between men and women get translated into social terms and descriptions (Gender and Society, 2013, p.7). Thus, gender needs to be viewed as an overarching social status which covers all areas of human life. Commonly, when thinking of gender differences between men and women, individuals are associated with such terms as masculinity and femininity. These concepts mean social characteristics and outcomes of being a man or a woman. A male representative usually penetrates in culture with certain features which define his masculinity; femininity of biologically female bodies occurs in the same way. "Performance of gender becomes involuntary as gender gets internalized through the socialization process within the dominant discourses of patriarchy gender is performed at different levels within the family and in the society" (Gender and Society, 2013, p.7).
In his paper Ebony M. Dickens (2014) discusses the ways in which gender differences emerge and how they are perceived in modern life. In contrast to previous years, nowadays there are no considerable differences in roles played by both men and women in society, for example, they work in the same areas of profession, take part in public sphere, improve their physical abilities etc. The author underlined several points of view which can have place in exploring the origin of sex differences. At first, there is a belief that earlier gender roles were mostly formed on the basis of biological differences between men and women; for example, women's ability to be pregnant lead to conclusions that just mothers should be near their children and take care of them, while nowadays fathers also have the opportunity to play leading role in child's upbringing due to changes in modern gender roles and technology development. This fact underlines the version that previously sex differences were determined by social expectations.
Secondly, taking into account scientific evidence, genetically and physically men and women are similar with the exception of biological differences such as procreation and "sexual selection". "A meta-analysis of 46 research studies regarding differences in gender roles showed 78 percent of the areas being researched did not demonstrate a significant difference in present-day roles between men and women" (Dickens, 2014).
The next argument in favor of the influence of society is that each person is socialized from the birth, it means that adults always exacerbate innate differences between boys and girls by the way they interact with their children. Here it is also possible to refer to Freud's concept of identification and social learning theory developed by Albert Bandura. Thus, as babies can identify with the parent of the same sex, a child also imitates behaviors and learn thoughts of this parent. In fact, social learning is more typical at the age of later childhood and adolescence. Meanwhile, adherents of biological theories state that sexual orientation cannot be learned or taught, it is biological in origin because certain parts of the brain of women and men are different. It is important to notice that sexual orientation and gender role are not the same, sometimes individuals develop behavior which is not connected with sexual orientation and does not correspond to societal expectancies.
The hypothesis that male and female infants can differ in temperament, perception of social stimuli and cognitive processes is supported in the article written by Alexander & Wilcox (2012). Here are some examples of different behavior of girls and boys. At first, in response to painful stimuli girls has shown greater pain reactivity. Speaking of the auditory system, male infants are weaker than female. Sex differences in visual processing related to a few better results among boys, but such differences do not cause long term outcomes in behavior.
"Evidence from research on older children and adults supports the masculinizing effects of prenatal testosterone on social and cognitive behavior" (Alexander & Wilcox, 2012). It is important that investigation of sex differences among female and male infants can make a significant contribution to further studies about personality development and later behavior.
One more influential factor for sex differences is change in the structure of the family, high number of divorces and single parenting. Taking into account mentioned Freud's theory, children who live in single parent families do not have an opportunity to fully identify themselves with parents, they interpret traditional gender roles in a different way as compared to the interpretation of the kids from families with two parents. Formation and realization of traditional gender roles among children from single parent families is much poorer than from traditional ones.
In the work by Nerisa Dozo (2015) it is mentioned that though numerous researchers were investigating essential and learned differences between men and women, there are a lot of inconsistent results followed from conducted studies. The author paid special attention not only to social and biological aspects of sex differences, but introduced a thesis addressed to prejudice. Society is full of numerous stereotypes and cliché concerning certain behavior and features of men or women. For example, in Western cultures people believe that women are more emotional, men are associated with more violent behavior (as it is shown in the media), women are considered to be agreeable and supportive, while men are related to aggression and dominance. Such assumptions and findings lead to appearance of the social behavior called intergroup prejudice. A test which was conducted in order to find out association between gender and career showed following results: "individuals are faster to associate female names with words such as “friendly’, ‘caretaker’, and ‘family’ and male names with words such as ‘leader’, ‘provide’, and ‘business’" (Dozo, 2015).
Indeed, different behaviors of men and women are conditioned by the variety of influences. Biologically, people of both sexes vary in physical size and indices, level of hormones and gonadal hormone exposure. From the other side, gender differences result from sex differentiated impact, behavior which corresponds to certain social hierarchy and commonly accepted gender roles. According to Dozo, N.(2015), "at the core of gender differences in behavior are the societal stereotypes about gender". Characteristics ascribed by people to any gender are not arbitrary but are based on inherent attributes related to men or women. When division of labor is peculiar to a society, different activities of people lead to the appropriation of certain attributes and personal features to respective gender. Bem’s Sex-Role Inventory (Dozo, 2015) was focused on evaluating both gender roles as two separate aspects and measuring androgyny. It was based on the results and self-report discovered from the participants who considered if they corresponded to traditional view of gender roles. Observations of the society and powerful accordance with biological sex became the reasons for assuming that there were differences between men and women.
A mistake or bias typical for society is that when we see an individual performing certain actions and behaving in some specified way we tend to ascribe similar behavior to all representatives of the same gender. Stereotypes related to gender roles not only influence on perception of self and environment, but also play a great role in determining own behavior. Acceptance and adoption of commonly established gender roles act through adjusting one's behavior and providing certain standards; it usually occurs due to self regulation or social regulation. Speaking of the self regulation, it results in positive effects on self-esteem and causes good feelings due to accordance. Those who feel discrepancy between behavior and gender identity face with inner contradictions and strive for the desired standard.
It is known that social interactions are very important for most people, who are often susceptible to external factors. Observance of social rules which correspond to common beliefs and are rewarded by society creates pressure which can determine one's role and behavior. Thus, it is possible to notice that gender not only influences on the personality development and individual's behavior, but also can become a focus idea for both men and women.
Returning to the biological aspect of the question, it is necessary to pay attention to the level of hormones inherent in both genders. Dozo (2015) underlined two types of hormones, which are activational and organizational. Activational ones act as a tool which transforms target cells in order to influence on the behavior. The second type is associated with structural organization and has affect during fetal age, childhood and adolescence. "The differences in hormones and related neural structures have been shaped partly through selection pressures and interact with more recently evolved higher brain functions" (Dozo, 2015). Specifically, subjecting to certain hormones (androgens) in birth period has significant contribution to further development and can change the brain functioning.
Gender differences are connected with different levels of such hormones as testosterone, estrogen, and oxytocin. For example, testosterone which is produced by testes and ovaries respectively in men and women plays determining role in sexual attributes, muscles and body hair; its content in a man's organism is about 7 times higher than in woman's. "Testosterone leads to the amplification of certain pathways in the brain, influencing brain, bone, skin, and muscle development" (Dozo, 2015). Higher levels of testosterone cause dominant behavior, while motivated behavior in its turn activates testosterone.
While masculine roles are linked with testosterone, feminine roles are conditioned by levels of oxytocin. This hormone is a neuropeptide which has two significant functions, the first one contains in regulation of uterine contractions during labour and milk production during lactation. Higher levels of oxytocin mean social behaviors such as parenting, decreased stress exposure, intimacy and trustful relations.
Continuing exploring biological aspects and hormone levels, it is possible to mention the article from the Karolinska Institutet (2008) related to serotonin and its influence on men and women. The scientists has found that the brain's serotonin system differs in representatives of both sexes. A it is known, serotonin is responsible for development and treatment of anxiety and depression, while women are more likely to face with this disorders. The results of studies has shown that "women have a greater number of the most common serotonin receptors than men" (Karolinska Institutet, 2008), moreover, levels of protein which moves serotonin to the nerve cells which secret it are lower in women, protein is blocked by the most common antidepressants. These findings can make a contribution to development of medicine which can help regulate mental processes.
Evolutionary psychologist Aaron Sell (2009) in his article focused on studies concerning natural selection influence on minds of both sexes in the context of aggression. Evolutionary psychologists lean to the opinion that sex differences in aggression are considered to be adaptive and are "designed by natural selection in response to differing ancestral selection pressures"(Sell, 2009). They refer to the examples which include different body size and maturation rates among men and women. In contrast to these assumptions, gender role theorists adhere to the opinion that sex differences in aggression result from learning mechanisms influenced by differential input. There are also arbitrary differences which are not developed during natural selection, do not follow from learning and do not cause noticeable outcomes; for example, differences in styles of clothes, color symbols, name spelling etc.
The paper by Babette Francis provides criticism of gender approaches, modern feminism and use of the term "gender" as the substitution of "sex". "Gender" is primarily a grammatical term, which may be determined by a distinguishing characteristic, i.e. sex, but gender can also be arbitrary like the gender of some nouns in Spanish and French" (Francis, p.1). The author outlined five physiological areas which determine biological sex of an individual, such as genes, hormones, gonads, internal and external reproductive organs; these areas allow recognize several biological sexes: men, women, hermaphrodites, masculine hermaphrodites and feminine hermaphrodites. Such classification of sexes is actual only when raking into account the unity of internal sexual organs and secondary sexual characteristics. Otherwise, separation of men and women turns out to be a symbolic cultural reality.
There is an assumption that sex differences are determined not before birth but before a conception. It is explained by observations of differences during appearance and behavior of androsperm, the boy-producing sperm, and gynosperm, the girl-producing sperm (Francis, p. 3). Certainly, here it is impossible to apply social conditioning and affirm that sex differences are mostly conditioned by social aspects.
Doreen Kimura (1999) stated that biologically, hormones begin influence on brain functioning from the first interaction with the environment. Numerous behavioral, neurological, biosocial studies were conducted and investigated biological reasons of sex differences in brain and behavior. Researches based on observation of humans and nonhumans lead scientists to a conclusion that the most influential factor for sexual differentiation is " the level of exposure to various sex hormones early in life" (Kimura, 1999). Absence of male hormonal influence can reduce masculine behavior and develop female sexual behavior, as it was reflected from the example with a rodent. Correspondingly, if a female body is provided with male hormones after birth, she is more likely to develop masculine behavior. The administering of androgens to a female at later ages does not show the same results.
Reproductive behavior is regulated by the portion of the brain called hypothalamus which links with the pituitary. "Scientists have also found parallel sex differences in a clump of nerve cells in the human brain—parts of the interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus—that is larger in men than in women" (Kimura, 1999, p.27). Speaking of the intellect, it is considered that generally sex differences are mostly connected with individual abilities than the level of IQ. Nevertheless, some researchers have stated that there are small distinctions in level of intelligence in favor of male humans. Studies in laboratory situations were conducted in order to distinguish sex differences in the ability of problem solving. At the mean, men outperform women in such areas as: mathematical reasoning tests, spatial ability, manipulating an object, navigating routes and target-directed motor skills. At the same time women show better results in tests which involve recalling of words, they demonstrate higher rates in tasks like searching for words beginning with a specified letter or under some other constraint, they succeed in identifying matching items and show accuracy in performing manual tasks. As for navigating, it was displayed that men learned the routes better and made less mistakes in the process of finding route, but women remembered more landmarks which could help them orientate themselves, such female ability is used in everyday life.
Previously, it was thought that sex differences in problem solving skills begin to appear after the puberty, but conducted investigations had shown that many cognitive differences appear at earlier ages. It is important to understand that findings concerning the dependence of problem solving on hormone levels are based on data gathered in the process of correlation. There is lack of information about "the relation between adult levels of hormones and those in early life, when abilities appear to become organized in the nervous system" (Kimura, 1999, p.29).
It is notable that cognitive patterns of adults can go through changes depending on fluctuation of hormones during different periods of life. Especially it is noticeable during the menstrual cycle and levels of estrogen. High levels of this hormone lead not only to decreased spatial ability but also influence on speech and performing manual tasks. As for men, their performance can vary seasonally due to varying level of testosterone.
Alice H. Eagly and Wendy Wood (1999) wrote in their article that social structural approaches could be compatible with assumptions provided by evolutionary psychologists. Authors displayed their arguments that "sex differences in behavior emerge primarily from physical sex differences in conjunction with influences of the economy, social structure, ecology, and cultural beliefs is potentially reconcilable with theories of coevolution by genetic and cultural processes" (Eagly & Wood, 1999, p. 421).
Finally, in order to realize and interpret human behavior and sex differences between men and women it is necessary to take into consideration numerous demands of modern life. Any behavioral distinctions should be regulated by brain processes, so it is important not to stop at gathering knowledge concerning brain structures and its functioning. Though some findings were taken from observations of animals any conclusion should be made only after testing new hypothesis on people.
Reference List
Alexander, G.M.& Wilcox T. (2012). Sex Differences in Early Infancy. Child Development Perspectives. Texas A&M University. Volume 6, Number 4. Pages 400–406. Retrieved from http://infantcognition.tamu.edu/files/2013/10/Alexander-G.A.-Wilcox-T.-2012.pdf
Babette, F. Is Gender A Social Cinstruct or a Biological Imperative? Presented at the Seventh Australian Institute of Family Studies Conference. 11 pages.
Dickens, E.M. (2014.) Are Gender Differences Socially Determined? PSY-510 - Contemporary and Ethical Issues in Psychology Grand Canyon University. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/8237401/Are_Gender_Differences_Socially_Determined
Dozo, N. (2015). Gender Differences in Prejudice: A biological and social psychological analysis. The University of Queensland, Australia. Retrieved from https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:364082/s4119521_phd_submission.pdf
Eagly A.H. &Wood, W. (1999). The Origins of Sex Differences in Human Behavior. American Psychologist. Retrieved from https://labs.psych.ucsb.edu/roney/james/other%20pdf%20readings/Eagly_Wood_1999.pdf
Gender and Society. (2013). Basic Concepts: Sex and Gender, Masculinity and Feminity, Patriarchy Unit Structure. Unit 1. University of Mumbai. Retrieved from http://archive.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/TYBA%20study%20material/Gender%20&%20Soc..pdf
Kimura, D. (1999). Sex Differences in the Brain. Defining Men. Scientific American, Inc. p.26-31. Retrieved from http://www.ucd.ie/artspgs/langimp/genderbrain.pdf
Sell, A. (2009). Standards of evidence for designed sex differences. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 32:3/4. doi:10.1017/S0140525X09990276. Retrieved from http://www.cep.ucsb.edu/grads/Sell/(2009)%20Standards%20of%20evidence%20for%20designed%20sex%20differences.pdf
Sex differences in the brain's serotonin system. (2008). Karolinska Institutet. Retrieved from http://phys.org/news/2008-02-sex-differences-brain-serotonin.html
