Summary
The Romans made many decisions which were pertinent to the internal affairs of the city of Rome. Rome disunited itself from the Plebs and the Roman Senate making the city free and more powerful. Liberty was placed in the hands of both the people and the Nobles, provided these individuals had a greater reason to gain or protect. The government in Rome was keen on eliminating the enmity between the Populace and the Senate. Religion was an important aspect in Rome, and the lack of a medium between the Roman Catholic Church led to the destruction of Rome. A new Prince of the City or a Province was expected to organize their leadership from scratch. A Republic or a Prince never turned away those from the city who were in need of their help. The Roman Republic relied heavily on dictatorship. Corruption was perceived as a hindrance to the success of the city, and the Republic was keen on equality. The people were perceived as wiser and more consistent when compared to their Prince. The city also employed guidelines to preserve itself. The city was guided by a strong set of principles which they relied on for guidance. The sons of Brutus were killed to maintain a new liberty after it had been acquired. Both harshness and humanity were used to rule in the city. Strong Republics were expected to acquire fortune courageously and with dignity.
Nietzsche – On the Genealogy of Morals (First and Third essays)
English Psychologists have made attempts to find the origin of morality in humanity. Actions are said to be good depending on the usefulness of the actions to those whom these actions are done for. Good has always proved to be useful and offers the highest degree of usefulness, and provided the act is also good. The definition of the term good in all languages suggests that which is noble, and is spiritually privileged and high-minded. The definition means the opposite of that which is vulgar and bad. The term originates from men of a higher rank and nobles who felt that they possessed a certain typical characteristic. Good does not, however, originate from those who benefit from the act, but rather from the good people who perform the act that is perceived as good by others. Religious leaders perceive all actions that go contrary to the wishes of God to be evil. The privileged in the society who were powerful were often associated with evil. Both bad and evil are contrasting elements to good but do not signify the same attribute. Evil is perceived to go beyond good and bad and is derived from the term devil.
An ascetic ideal is the expression of the human will. For many people, the term means different things. For an artist, the term means nothingness. The term offers philosophers the independence that they need to go and explore the world. These individuals think of themselves and free themselves of all responsibilities that are likely to tie them down. Ascetic ideal is associated with three characteristics which include humility, chastity and poverty, which are associated with the spirits. The term ascetic ideal has close ties with philosophy. A philosopher uses the form of an ascetic ideal so that they can play the role and became a philosopher. The ascetic ideal rises from the need for salvation and the instinct for protection in a life that is degenerating. The ascetic ideal focusses on accomplishing a sole goal, and all other goals cease to be of any importance.
Hobbes - Leviathan (13, 16-21)
Hobbes emphasizes the animal nature that is present in every human being. Human beings have the need to live independent of others fulfilling their self-interest, and disregarding others. Human beings come together to form organizations since they cannot solely rely on their individual powers to be content and secure themselves a livelihood. Commonwealth forms the highest form of social organization. A Commonwealth creates a new artificial person who is entrusted with the responsibility of social order and public welfare. The decisions of the new social organizations are made by a single person who becomes the sovereign. The Commonwealth is brought together by covenants, but it is important to remember that the covenant does not symbolize a relationship between the sovereign and their subjects. The relationship of the subjects who decide to rid themselves of their native powers so that they can benefit from the orderly government by obeying the commands of the sovereign authority is what matters. The minority subjects who do not agree with the sovereign authority are left with no say and are also expected to conform to the sovereign authority. The sovereign authority acts as an institutional embodiment of the orderly government. The decisions of the sovereign authority are arbitrary, and provided that they are understood, they should be obeyed universally. The sovereign can be a corporate person such as an assembly of citizens or a legislature, or a single person. An individual from a hereditary monarchy has been found to be more effective. A single person who is elected to choose their advisors has been found to be a more consistent sovereign authority since they are able to lead without the fear of internal conflicts. According to Hobbes, Commonwealth offers human beings the freedom that they need, and the ability to achieve their personal needs without interference. The law does not prevent this, but instead, it enables people to exercise their freedom with respect to others.
