Introduction
According to Engler (2013), personality refers to a unique set of personal traits that influence behavior and the conduct of oneself. Therefore, personality development is a process upon which personality evolves over a course of time. The aspect of human personality has been an aspect upon massive research has been carried out in an attempt to explain behavior. This is guided by the fact that personality changes as one advances in age. For this reason, researchers have formulated different theories to explain the phenomenon. One of these is Erik Erikson. Erikson was inspired by Sigmund Freud’s work which laid a basis for his personality research (Engler, 2013). Freud, being a psychologist, focused on the conflict between the id and the superego.
On the contrary, Erikson being an ego psychologist focused on the conflict that existed in the aspects of culture and society, and between the human egos. In this case, Erikson held that the development of the ego was based on the successful resolution of crises that are considered social in nature. Erikson incorporated Freudian elements through the inclusion of the creative and adaptive elements of the ego as well as the resulting expansion of personality. In this case, he formulated his personality development theory based on the different life stages of an individual. Just like Freud and other psychologists, Erikson believed one’s personality developed in predetermined stages in which case builds upon the preceding stages, a concept referred to as the epigenic principle (Shaffer and Kipp, 2010). For this reason, Erikson modeled the elements as discussed above in eight different stages in a person’s life. The first five stages take place before the age of 18 years, while the other three phases after this period. According to Erikson, the most important stage throughout the life span is the adolescent stage. This is because he believed the phase played a crucial role in the development of a person’s identity.
Discussion of Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages
As indicated above, a crisis occurs at each stage of personality development. This concept is psychosocial in nature as the crises occur as a result of the conflict between the psychological aspects of a person (psycho) and the needs or demands of the society (social). According to the Erikson’s theory, the successful completion of each stage leads to the acquisition of defined virtues in which case allows the strengthening of the ego as it resolves different crises in life. On the other hand, the unsuccessful completion may lead to failure of progression to other stages. However, these phases can be completed at a different time. The stages are as follows (Engler, 2013):
Trust versus Mistrust
The first stage occurs during a child’s first year. In this case, the crisis involves the element of trust and mistrust. At this stage, the infant is unsure about the world in which he/she has been born in. for this reason, the child looks for a source of dependency, the primary care giver, in which most cases is the mother. This is done in a bid to provide stability, assurance, and constant care and attention. In this case, if the toddler receives considerable, consistent, and reliable amounts of care, the infant is likely to develop the element of trust. As a result, in latter stages they are able to have a sense of trust in other relationships one might form in future.
The successful completion of this stage leads to the acquisition of the virtue of hope. In this case, even when crises occur at other times, the infant is hopeful that he/she will have other people upon who will help in resolving the conflict. On the other hand, if the infant does not receive adequate care from the primary care giver, the result is the development of fear. He/she will be insecure as they will be uncertain of the availability of support systems to help navigate through any crises that confronts them at any point in their lives. As a result, the individual carries the fear in other relationships which are characterized by a range of different insecurities, uncertainties, and mistrust.
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt
This stage takes place between the ages of 18 months and 3 years. In this case, the child is starting to gain independence as he/she begins to understand what he/she wants. The aspect of mobility is also evident as the child develops physically and also mentally. At this point, the child discovers he/she has different abilities as characterized by various activities such as wearing of clothes which proves the aspect of autonomy. In this case, the care givers should allow the child explores their abilities in a tolerant environment. As a result, success at this stage is characterized by the acquisition of the virtue of will. On the other hand, if child is not allowed to assert his/her independence and in the same manner, allows the exploration of his/her environment, the child feels inadequate and is unsure about themselves. This may cause them to become over-reliant on others, since they are shameful and doubt their own abilities.
Initiative versus Guilt
Between the ages of 3 and 5, the child becomes assertive, an element that can be confused for aggression by parents. At this point, the child is lively with high amounts of energy. Since this is a school-going age, the child interacts with other children through play. As a result, he/she is able to learn interpersonal skills through the initiation of activities. In addition, the child, through planning of playing activities and their initiation with others, develops the security in their ability to lead others.
On the contrary, it the child is not provided with an environment that allows for self-expression and interaction, either through control or criticism, the child develops feelings of guilt as he/she is unsure of his leadership abilities. As s result, he/she fails to take initiative and becomes a follower. However, the balance between initiative and guilt should be encouraged in order to encourage healthy development. The successful completion of this stage is the virtue of purpose.
Industry (Competence) versus Inferiority
This stage takes place between the ages of 5 and 12 years. At this point, the child begins learning how to read and write, and other activities on his/her own. Therefore, the role of the teacher becomes an integral part in the child’s life. In this case, a child’s peer group becomes important as it leads to the development of self-esteem. The child seeks to demonstrate various competencies accepted and lauded by society in a bid to gain approval and recognition. If a child is able to accomplish these competencies in a supportive environment, he/she becomes confident and industries.
On the other hand, if the child grows in a restrictive environment that does not allow him/her to take initiative, they feel inferior and lack confidence in their skills and abilities. As a result, they may not exploit their full potential. This environment limits the child as he/she is not able to develop the competencies approved by society, such as being academically smart; the child develops an inferiority complex.
However, the balance between competence and inferiority should be encouraged in order to facilitate development of modesty. Furthermore, since life is sometimes affected by various disappointments, the child is able to recognize this fact, while keeping his/her competencies in check. Successful progression of this stage leads to development of the virtue of competence.
Identity versus Role Confusion
This stage marks the adolescent phase that takes place between the ages of 12 and 18. This phase is crucial in personality development as it marks the transition from childhood to adulthood. At this point, children become independent as they start making decisions about relationships and careers in the future. The overriding concept at this point is the need for a person to fit in society. This is done through self-assessment in a bid to understand oneself and establish their identities. According to Erikson, two identities are involved, namely, sexual and occupational identities. In the former instance an individual understands their sexual identity as accompanied by various body changes characterized in this stage. According to Erikson, the adolescent is initially uncomfortable about the changes in his/her body but eventually accepts these and forms an appropriate self-body image.
Success at this stage is marked by the development of the virtue of fidelity. According to Engler (2013), fidelity refers to the ability of committing oneself to others irrespective of any ideological differences existing between the two parties.
On the contrary, failure to form an identity with respect to the society leads to role confusion. As a result, the adolescent experiences an identity crisis as he/she experiments with different roles such as work, education, amongst others. Furthermore, pressuring an individual to take up an identity leads to rebellion and ultimately, unhappiness.
Intimacy versus Isolation
This phase takes place in young adulthood, that is, between the ages of 18 and 40. At this point, an individual is able to share intimately with others. In this case, one forms intimate relationships with other people other than family.
Successful completion of this phase is witnessed in the formation of comfortable relationships that are characterized by elements of commitment and care. On the other hand, unsuccessful formation of intimate relationships leads to isolation and in serious cases, the development of depression. The successful passage of this phase is represented by the presence of love.
Generativity versus Isolation
This stage takes place between the ages of 40 and 65. This phase builds upon the preceding stage and involves the development of a sense of stability in relationships and career. At this point, individuals start families and generally start planning for the future. Furthermore, people in this stage give back to their societies through raising their children, and providing positive contributions to the communities they live and work in through involvement in community organizations and activities.
However, if unsuccessful at this stage, an individual feels unproductive and stagnant as they do not see themselves as productive members of society. Successful completion of this stage leads to development of the virtue of care.
Ego Integrity versus despair
At this point, an individual is past the age of 65. One’s productivity is greatly reduced as contemplation of life as a retiree abounds. In this case, a person reflects on their lives in which case may feel successful upon the achievement of goals one might have set at one point in their lives thereby leading to development of integrity from their perspective of having lived successful lives. On the other hand, individuals who may feel they have not accomplished meaningful milestones in their lives develop despair as they feel unsuccessful. This condition often leads to depression and development of feelings of hopelessness.
Research Relevant to the Theory
Erikson’s theory has received widespread interest by researchers and scholars alike, owing to the interesting perspective presented in the analysis of life stages. In this case, according to Carducci (2009), the theory is vague as it does not describe the number of experiences one must have for successful completion of one stage and allow for progression to the next stage. In this case, critics account for the lack of discreteness in the different stages as proposed by Erikson.
Furthermore, Erikson’s theory does not provide a universal mechanism that can be adopted into crisis resolution. In the stages discussed above, the element of crisis occurs upon the unsuccessful completion of respective stages. The theory does not provide a solution that can be implemented to resolve the conflict. The theory only mentions the element of stagnation that hinders progression to other stages (Carducci, 2009).
The Theory and Real-World Situations
The psychosocial theory can be applied in various respects in real-world situations. For example, parents can apply the theory in understanding how parenting impacts personality development. In this case, they should provide a supportive and tolerant environment for their child’s healthy development. For instance, during toilet-training, they should not criticize the child, but remain tolerant and allow the child learn according to his/her own pace.
Furthermore, the theory can be adopted in mentoring young individuals during their adolescent stages. This encourages proper role identification and prevents confusion as indicated by Erikson. This allows proper and successful progression to other stages in life.
Conclusion
All in all, the psychosocial theory as formulated by Erikson holds true to many individuals following the closes association it provides to people’s daily experiences. Even though it has some concerns raised against the theory, the identification of the different stages in accordance with one’s stages in life provides insightful information that can be useful in deciphering various crises in life. As a result, one is able to understand the elements as provided in each stage and work towards the creation of an appropriate identity and also provide adequate information to those involved in child-rearing activities, in a bid to encourage the healthy development of children.
References
Carducci, B. (2009). The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, research, and applications. Chicago: Wiley Publishers.
Engler, B. (2013). Personality theories. New York: Routledge Publishers.
Shaffer, D. & Kipp, K. (2010). Developmental psychology: Childhood and adolescence. Hoboken: CengageBrain Publishers.
