Epidemiological transition is a demographic transition during the Paleolithic phase, which was characterized sudden and stark increase in the human population because of significant improvement in medical innovation. Paleolithic archaeology was initiated by a need to change to suit natural dictates during the upper Paleolithic period. This was the prime phase for evolution of human beings. Omran, coined a theory on epidemiological transition, which he divided into three phases. Omran divided this period into an age of pestilence and famine, which was characterized by high yet fluctuating mortality rate. There was a very low life expectancy. In essence, humans at the time were dependent on the amount of food that nature could provide. There was little innovation especially in agriculture and food storage. Demographic imbalances easily induced lethal responses from nature in form of famine and outbreak of diseases.
Afterwards, this period was succeeded by the age of receding pandemics, where mortality was declined progressively and there was a gradual decrease in pandemics. Resultantly, there was an increase in the general life expectancy from 30 to 50 years. An exponential population growth was already on the onset.
This era was followed by age of degenerative and man-made diseases. Supposedly, after population increase, demand for land increased. The greatest enemy to the general humanity was fellow humans. Towards mid nineteen, there were as many problems as solutions created by man. A lot of modernization, which picked up during the nineteenth century also characterized epidemiological transition. After technological advancement, the health sector seems to have taken a very influential impact on the current technological era. Huge incidences of innovation have been significantly devised to deal with major problems affecting humanity. Research processes were initiated to explore more avenues in the medical and industries.
Evidence from demographical transition theory indicates that the lifestyle of a person greatly affects the morbidity and mortality patterns. The development level of a place affects the diseases and life expectancy in that place. The level of development of a place affects directly the diet, reproductive systems and exercise levels in a place. Over the years, the changing systems in these activities have affected the growth levels of a place directly.
Research shows a direct relationship between the development of a country, the diseases that affect the country and the mortality rates in that country. Before the eighteenth century, the human activities in the world were similar. The birth and death rates were equally high. The main activities carried out in this period were farming and other manual activities that involved a lot of exercise. The birth and death rates in this period remained constant and the population growth was very low. The main diseases in this period were bacterial diseases, which led to many deaths. In this period, the farming techniques were poor leading to deaths caused by droughts and malnutrition.
After the agricultural revolution, there were change in the lifestyles and human activities leading to changes in morbidity and mortality patterns. The twentieth century was characterized by changes in farming techniques and lifestyles in the world. There were changes in food production methods and other activities ultimately affecting the lifestyle and health systems of the people. There were new crop breeds being cultivated that led to improvements in the diet of the people. People invented new methods of cultivating and cultivated better breeds of people therefore reducing deaths caused by malnutrition and droughts. There were improvements in hygiene and sanitation activities deaths by waterborne diseases reduced in this period. The decline in the disease prevalence in this period led to increase in the population as death rates decreased significantly.
The third stage of development is the post industrial revolution period to date. After the industrial revolution, improvements in medical facilities led to people being able to control most of the diseases. Deaths due to these diseases reduced significantly. The lifestyles of the people changed enormously. Increased mechanization led to changes in the exercising patterns. Mechanization and scientific breeding of crops led to improvements in food production. Sustaining the population and giving food in abundance. The diseases patterns changed to lifestyle caused diseases. In that period to date, diseases like blood pressure and have been on the rise. Lack of exercise and poor diet techniques have led to increased deaths to these diseases. The death rate has reduced significantly due the improvements in healthcare provision services.
Long term, evolutionary perspective on human exhibits a viable implication of the manner in which diseases in the contemporary society are manipulated and treated. However, the perspective in today’s diseases has been significantly affected by mutation. Generally, there is a very gradual change within the immediate environment. Evolution traces are still eminent in the current demographic patterns.
Microorganisms known as pathogens cause diseases to human beings when develop any form of contact with them. Research over the current few years indicates that different disease causing microorganisms. The current patterns indicate that despite the current advancements on technology, medical products that were manufactured a few years ago cannot be used since different pathogens have developed resistance. The environment is also evolving because of human activities, which have significantly interfered with the psychological balance. Currently, a lot of advancement has been made to match up the speed of the mutation by microorganisms. Nevertheless, human development should take a look at the changes that are very common in the current generation. There is a need to address such instances since humans could be running into yet another dangerous phase of development.
Part 2:
Cultural bound syndrome
Cultural bound syndrome is a term used by scholars to describe various forms of mental illness that are considered abnormal due to pathoplastic cultural influence. The symptoms are only acquired within a specific culture and there is no structural and biological tampering of the body organs. Different cultures experience different culture specific syndrome such as somatic symptoms and behavioral. Unlike geographical diseases that are identifiable and specific, cultural bound syndrome can be assumed and later be found that to have a biological causation. Cultural bound syndrome is found in many common cultures hence they are not western. These syndromes helps in understanding the boundaries between health and mental illness because in non-western cultures, the syndromes are use to express depression and they are acceptable. When the syndrome occurs on North America culture, there are adverse outcomes on individuals and family. Culture is significant in medical anthropology because it affects mental illness as much as biology can do.
Somatization is a disease caused by psychological instabilities. The main characteristics of somatization include, pain, amnesia or breathing problems and sexual problems. The main cause of somatization is anxiety and worry. The psychological problem of anxiety translates to the physical problems causing many more problems for the victim. Medical anthropology is concerned with the relationship between the psychological and physical health of a person.
One of the causes of somatization is repressed emotions or ego-defense. Depending on the culture and the nature of a person, some people may repress emotions, as it is a sign of weakness. The act of repressing emotions may lead to severe consequences when it comes to the health of a person. Medical anthropologists are concerned f the study of relationship between the emotion repression and the health of a person. This may help in understanding the evolution of morbidity today. The other cause of somatization is the way a child is brought up. Research shows that children who details of pain are taken care of may end up developing somatization in their later life. Medical anthropologists also view on how the society and place where a person lives affects the mental and physical health. The strength of the brain should be directly equivalent to the physical strength since most of the operations of the brain are coordinated from the brain. In exceptional cases, the strength of the brain more significant because of its role in coordination of all activities of the body.
Role conflict and Status inconsistency:
There is delineation between the current social structure and the demands from the social framework. For instance, on many occasions, different classes of people are discriminated against yet within them are remarkable capabilities that define the role of humanity and their ability to fit in the societal context. Dukheim develop a visionary theoretical plan on the inherence of possibilities in division of labor. Social structures are categorically consequential in the normative level of consistency required in balancing social and psychological aspects within the immediate society. Marx rules these inconsistencies as normative and characterizes them with the ability to balance out. It is only natural that the social structure leads to imbalances that cancel out, leading to a viable development process within the societal obligations.
Human attributes are consequential in multiple misappropriations within the society such that there are very any ways that the common human is limited by these imbalances with an aim of achieving certain roles of nature. Nature has multiple limiting factors, which hinder certain obligations within the society. Conflicting roles within the society are eminent especially because different people either are entitled to duties beyond their capability or have a different perception of the necessary requirements towards accomplishment important roles within the society.
Cultural relativity:
Franz Boas developed an axiomatic principle in anthropological research, which he regarded as cultural relativism. According to Boaz, civilization is relative. Human ideas and conceptions are relative to their level of civilization. In an indirect approach, Boaz implied that every human is an independent entity in as far as life is concerned. Different people have different perceptions towards various incidences in life; however, they are justified depending on their immediate context. Despite such difference in perceptions, every individual is justified in their own perceptions.
Historical and sociopolitical contingency of "normal"
Social, political, and economic development has been characterized by sociopolitical contingency. Political groups emanated from Europe, where a huge development and the spread of emperors. During this process, different values were spread. Political warfare ensued within various parts of the world. Political powers were tested during the first and the Second World War, after which different states joined hand to develop a similar objective and a conquest to the warfare against each other. Political contingency was one of the factors that facilitated the development of civilization globally. More aspects f humanity and political coherence has been developed and greatly enhanced in the current political world.
Similarly, political development has been very influential in the determination of a strong reference point for political development. Most of the guiding principles emanate from the experiences of the past. The battle against the problems of the past has facilitated a common objective within all circles of humanity. The spread of information has developed a system through which different societies integrate their different differences and virtues for a common interest. There is an efficient communication and a data exchange network through which difference aspects are develop. The globe started as one big continent but is current a small village of common human values.
Works cited:
Hahn, Robert A. and Marcia Inhorn (eds.) Anthropology and Public Health, Second Edition: Bridging Differences in Culture and Society.Oxford University Press 2010 Print
Pool, R and Geissler, WMedical Anthropology. Buckingham: Open University Press. 2005 Print
Trevathan,W, Smith,EO, McKenna J Evolutionary Medicine and Health: New Perspectives. Oxford University Press. 2007 Print
Orta, Miquel, ed. "Behavioral epidemic". A Dictionary of Epidemiology (5th ed.). Oxford University Press. 2008. Print
Salomon, Joshua A., & Murray, Christopher J.L The Epidemiological Transition Revisited: New Compositional Models for Causes of Death by Age and Sex. Oxford university press. 2000, Print
Oded Galor. "The Demographic Transition and the Emergence of Sustained Economic Growth." Journal of the European Economic Association. 2005 Print.
