English
Introduction
Teenage pregnancy can complicate the lives of young women and their babies. Young men and women may not be emotionally prepared for sex, much less pregnancy. Teenage pregnancy reduces the overall number of school years, affecting the education and further employability of young mothers. As per national statistics in the USA, the poverty rate for children born to teen mothers who are not married and did not graduate from high school is 78 percent, while the child poverty rate for children born to married high school graduates over 20 is only 9 percent (Baton Rouge Parish). As many as a third of pregnant teens receive inadequate prenatal care, and babies born to young mothers are likely to be of low birth weight, have childhood problems and more likely to be hospitalized than babies born to older mothers. The USA has one of the “highest teen pregnancies in the developed world”(East Baton Rouge Parish), with Louisiana ranking very high within the USA. In Louisiana in 2002, “15.5 percent of all births were to teenagers of 15 to 19 years of age” with the corresponding figure for Baton Rouge being 13.5 percent (East Baton Rouge Parish). This paper seeks to assess the causes of teen pregnancy. The thesis of this paper is that abuse, peer pressure, absence of parent-child communication and lack of development programs cause teen pregnancy for adolescents.
Abuse
Sexual abuse in early life is one of the primary triggers for possible teenage pregnancy at a later stage. Sexual abuse can alter perceptions about sexual behavior and can influence judgment in forming intimate relationships, thereby leading to earlier sexual debut, more sexual partners and an increased risk of sexual violence in intimate relationships. This is likely because sexually abused adolescents would have experienced the violation of their most intimate boundaries, which would have lest to the creation of a sense of powerlessness in relationships. This would lead to impairment of the ability to negotiate contraceptive use. As a result, sexually abused adolescents would be less likely than their nonabused peers to adopt birth control measures. Further, methods of coping with abuse may also put teenagers at risk for pregnancy. Two common fallouts of sexual abuse are substance abuse and running away from home. Substance abuse before intercourse increases the risk of multiple partners and unprotected sex. Physiological changes in the brain as a result of the traumatic stress of sexual abuse make it likely for abused teenagers who cope by using mood-altering substances to become chemically dependent, and they may turn to sex to support their substance use. At times, if the perpetrator is a family member, adolescents often attempt to escape the abuse by running away from home, living on the street and attempting to survive through a barter system of sex. Sometimes, the adolescents may be placed in foster care or another out-of-home arrangement after disclosure of the abuse. Runaway and out-of-home youth- those who report living alone or living with foster parents or nonrelated adults- are more likely to have a history of sexual abuse. Sexually abused youth are also more likely to engage in prostitution and survival sex. All of these behaviors have been linked to teenage pregnancy (Saewyc, Magee and Pettingell). A large number of studies have corroborated the correlation of sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy. Most studies have shown that 40-70% of teenage mothers report a history of sexual abuse. School-based surveys in the late 1980s have found a higher prevalence of pregnancy amongst adolescents who have been sexually abused than among nonabused participants. Amongst various surveys, the Minnesota Student Survey stands out as a comprehensive large-scale adolescent health survey that used a wider definition of sexual abuse and included more than one item addressing sexual abuse. The Minnesota Student Survey, therefore, becomes a referral point. Saewyc, Magee and Pettingell used the Minnesota Student Survey to test the association between a history of sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy involvement, as well as sexual and other risk behaviors associated with teenage pregnancy. They found that those who had been sexually abused were significantly more likely than their nonabused peers to report pregnancy involvement and risk behaviors associated with teen pregnancy. Amongst the teenagers who had experienced sexual abuse, “those who had experienced incest only had the lowest odds of risk behavior and pregnancy, and those who had experienced both incest and nonfamilial abuse had the greatest likelihood of pregnancy involvement and risk behaviors” (Saewyc, Magee and Pettingell). The findings of the researchers echo earlier surveys, strongly establishing the link between sexual abuse and teenage pregnancy.
Peer Pressure
Psychologists, sociologists and medical researchers have long studied peer relations among young people. A vast repository of multidisciplinary research strongly points to the overarching importance of peers in adolescent life. Consequently, the social norms encouraged amongst peers become a strong impetus towards questionable milestones like teenage pregnancy. Adolescent peer contexts consist of multiple, overlapping layers of social relations. Peers consist of a complex ecology consisting of close friends, small cliques and romantic partners. These intimate relations are embedded in larger, more diffused peer crowds crisscrossing middle and high schools. At an even higher level, there is the intangible youth culture, prescribing prevalent norms, values and rituals to connect all the disparate levels below (Crosnoe and McNeely). While social relations are developmentally significant at all stages of life, the link between peer relations and developmental trajectories is much stronger during adolescence than during childhood or adulthood. This phenomenon occurs because during adolescence, children gravitate away from the influence of their parents to their peers. As a result, adolescents are more likely to internalize the value systems of their peers as their own. There is, in addition, a strong link between the selection of adolescents into peer groups and the influence of peer groups on adolescents. Adolescents typically enter into peer groups with whose norms, values and activities they associate. Subsequent development trajectories become a manifestation of why the adolescent joined the peer group. Peer relations are also characterized by the fact that peers are tolerant or even encouraging of activities that are otherwise prohibited by parents, school personnel, the police and other adults as dangerous, inappropriate or immoral. Therefore, risky activities such as unprotected sex, drug use, drinking and smoking become initiated through peer influence. In effect, peer relations often become the deciding factor in whether adolescents initiate or maintain such risky behavior (Crosnoe and McNeely). The influence of peer pressure, therefore, acts as a stimulus to teenage pregnancy in a situation when teenage pregnancies are high in proportion. If many of the peers are pregnant, the stigma attached to such a milestone translates into a badge of achievement. This is reflected in a survey by Essence Magazine, which noted, “ youth say they feel a lot of pressure to have sex nearly half report that they have been pressured to go further sexually than they wanted toWhen females who don’t always use contraception explain why, nearly four in ten say it’s because their partner doesn’t want them to” (Kay). Thus, peer pressure is an important cause propelling the rising incidences of teen pregnancy.
Parent-Child Closeness and Communication
Parents continue to play an important role in the development of children. Absence of support and lack of communication between parents and adolescents is one of the major causes that propel teenage pregnancy. Many researchers have investigated the relation between adolescents’ sexual behavior and family variable wish as parental warmth, support and closeness. In a marked closeness in results, most studies indicate that parent-child closeness is associated with reduced adolescent pregnancy risk through teens remaining sexually abstinent, postponing intercourse, having fewer sexual partners or using contraception more consistently (Miller, Benson and Galbraith). Of particular importance is the closeness of the mother to the daughter. A high quality mother-teen relationship has been seen to lead to consistent contraceptive use. Researchers have observed that lack of parental support and resultant communication was related to depression amongst teens, and the associated domino effect of increased sexual activity was stronger for females than for males. Low parental support also resulted in early sexual activity. A more intensive association with sexually active peers is also seen as a reflection of a deficit or void left by weak bonding to parents. A seven-year longitudinal study has found that the effects of parental warmth and involvement in the seventh grade were shown to affect teen pregnancy status in the twelfth grade through intervening mechanism such as deviant peer affiliations, substance abuse, delinquency and academic competence (Miller, Benson and Galbraith). While most research has yielded no consistent effect of parent-child communication to sexual issues, it has been observed that mothers’ communication is more strongly associated with adolescent pregnancy risk than fathers’ communication, and that there is a stronger effect on daughters than on sons. Thus, a complex combination of parent-child relationships, including closeness and communication, play a role in teen pregnancy, either through direct influence or indirectly because of the adolescent deviating towards delinquent peers and behavior.
Lack of Development Programs for Adolescents
It has been observed that several types of programs are successful in delaying the initiation of sexual activity and preventing pregnancy. Many of such programs are of recent vintage, and their effectiveness in actually preventing teenage pregnancy is not fully validated (Hofferth). Classes on sex education have yielded limited effects on sexual activity. However classes on contraceptive education were seen to be associated with contraceptive use at first intercourse. Broader and more holistic developmental programs, on the other hand, have been seen to be more effective in modifying attitudes and behaviors that culminate to teen pregnancy. For instance, a ‘Life Skills Counseling’ approach showed that participants became better and problem solving and communication, became more knowledgeable about reproduction and birth control and developed more favorable attitudes towards habitual contraception and birth control (Hofferth). Thus, it is evident that there is a marked scarcity of effective development programs that would actually help mitigate teen pregnancy. Initiatives that attend to the immediate aspects like sex education should therefore take a back seat in favor of more holistic development programs for teens.
A Counter View
While a majority of mainstream viewpoint identifies teen pregnancy as a problem that needs to be mitigated, there are studies funded by the UNICEF that argue that instead of attacking the incidence of teen pregnancy, it is more worthwhile to address the issues of poverty and lack of development for teenage mothers (Gentleman). While this approach may ultimately yield long-term benefits, society would be better served to ensure that teenagers do not become mothers in the first place, and concentrate on their studies in order to become better and more capable members of society.
Conclusion
Teen pregnancy is one of the biggest reasons why the promise of contribution by young women to society is being thwarted at a young age. Instead of continuing with their education teens drop out of school for child bearing, creating a long-term deleterious impact on society. Sexual abuse, peer pressure, influence by parents including closeness and communication, and holistic development programs have substantial impact on teen pregnancy. It is for society to develop mechanisms and norms to prevent the trend of sexual abuse on adolescents. Peer pressure could be turned to society’s advantage if the dominant message in society influenced teens to turn away from activities that resulted in pregnancies. If societal norms were thus maneuvered, peer pressure could become an agent in favor of avoidance of pregnancy. The importance of parental influence can never be under estimated. Finally, society and government must become aware of the limited utility of sex education, and instead opt for holistic development programs to mitigate the crisis of teen pregnancy.
Works Cited
Crosnoe, Robert, and Clea McNeely. “Peer Relations, Adolescent Behavior, and Public Health Research and Practice.” Family and Community Health 31/1 (2008): 71-80. Print.
East Baton Rouge Parish. “Maternal, Child and Adolescent Health.” New.DHH.Louisiana.gov. 2005. Web. March 9, 2016.
Gentleman, Amelia. “Teenage Pregnancy More Opportunity than Catastrophe, Says Study.” TheGuardian.com. February 12, 2010. Web. March 9, 2016.
Hofferth, Sandra L. “The Effects of Programs and Policies on Adolescent Pregnancy and Childbearing.” Risking the Future: Adolescent Sexuality, Pregnancy, and Childbearing, Volume II: Working Papers and Statistical Appendices. Eds. Sandra L. Hofferth and Cheryl D. Hayes. Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1987. Print.
Kay, Keya. “Sensitive Parental Topics: Peer Pressure and Teen Pregnancy.” MadameNoire.com. May 26, 2015. Web. March 9, 2016.
Miller, Brent C., Brad Benson and Kevin A. Galbraith. “Family Relationships and Adolescent Pregnancy Risk: A Research Synthesis.” Developmental Review 21/1 (2001): 1-38. Print.
Saewyc, Elizabeth M., Lara Leanne Magee and Sandra E. Pettingell. “Teenage Pregnancy and Associated Risk Behaviors among Sexually Abused Adolescents.” Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 36/3 (2004): 98-105. 2004. Print.
