In 1853, Japan was forced to sign some unequal treaties when Commodore Matthew C. Perry sailed into Tokyo Bay with his American “gun-boat diplomacy” (Hagan, 1973). The American “gun-boat” diplomacy entails a “sign or show force” policy. The unequal treaties allowed Western powers one-sided economic benefits in the country. The West was granted extra-territoriality and control over tariffs. Besides that, Japan was treated by the West just like any other Asian country because of racism prevalent in the West (McClintock, 1995). Being run by warrior dynasties, the West has greatly embarrassed Japan.
Japan wanted to gain independence from the Western powers and establish herself as a respected nation-state in the world. When it re-established the monarchy and redefined their foreign policy, it developed policies and technology borrowed from the West. Japan gained a place among the top industrial nations in the world and the same time, was able to preserve its traditions and national values.
During the Meiji period, Japan worked to convince the West to revise the treaties. To prove itself, Japan applied lessons of imperialism to its foreign policy and joins the Western imperial order in the late 1800s. Japan turned towards international affairs to prove to the West that Japan was indeed modernizing. In the mid-1894, the Western powers signed treaties which allowed gradual elimination of the earlier unequal treaties. Unlike China where human and material resources were spent by fighting foreigners off their land, Japan sought to prove itself by embracing the West. In doing so, it did not only preserve its independence; it also became a world power.
Characteristics of Japanese imperialism
According to Beasley (1995), there are several characteristics of Japanese Imperialism. First, Japanese imperialism based more on strategic concerns where Japan aimed to build a strong economic and military base. Only with a strong military and economy can Japan force the West to eliminate or revise the treaties. Second, it drew on notions of imperial sacrifice and nationalism. Japan’s other wars with the Chinese and Russians had set idealistic outlooks regarding national gain. Several International conventions pressured the expectations of the Japanese. Besides that, it also fueled Japan’s racist nationalist images that convinced the Japanese people to relate with imperialist notions.
Japan’s imperialist policies were similar with the West where the goal was to gain international respect and authority.
Japanese Imperialism in Korea
Korea played as China’s “younger brother” whenever it was about to be faced with danger or if its sovereignty is being challenged. But China itself was challenged by Western powers, Britain and Russia in particular. Japan viewed Korea as a location of agricultural and industrial expansion. Korea was moving slowly towards modernization under Kojong Dynasty and it faced a major threat because of Japanese imperial interest. Korea sought protection to China but it looked unlikely because of China’s recent defeat in the Sino-Japanese war in 1895. The Western powers did not interfere as Japan pushed its influence towards Korea.
The first document was signed between Korea and Japan in 1904 stated that Japan entails that it was because of the friendship and “firmly establishing peace in the Far East” that “the Imperial Government of Korea shall place full confidence in the Imperial Government of Japan and adopt the advice of the latter in regard to improvements in administration” (Nahm 261). Japan used the guise of friendship and peace to be able to influence the Korean government and administration. Through several ways, Japan gained more influence and control over Korea. Japan assassinated the members of the Korean royal family. In 1910, Japan declared annexation of Korea to Japan (Nahm 536).
Many Korean farmers were forced to complete quotas for Japan's needs and if they resisted, they were evicted off their own land. Several businesses were taken by the Japanese and buildings were occupied by Japanese officials. Because of the very oppressive Japanese rule, the Koreans were not able to maintain and organize a strong opposition base. Korean men were also used to as part of the Japanese army – forcing them to fight wars for Japan’s benefit.
Japanese Imperialism was described as brutal and ruthless. During the Second World War, Japanese soldiers had set up what was commonly known as “comfort houses” where Korean women were forced to have sex with twenty to thirty Japanese soldiers in a day (Hicks 1997). The Japanese soldiers believed that sex before a war could protect soldiers from injury in battle(Hicks 1997). If the Korean women resisted, they were subjugated through a beating or were killed. They were also used to bear more children to be raised for war. Many women became unresponsive and frigid. Besides that, the women also became barren after a time and if the Japanese soldiers found them useless, soldiers will mix cyanide with their milk, and place their bodies in caves which will be later blown up.
Spanish Imperialism in the Philippines
Spain was one of the first imperial powers where colonial expeditions were sent even before the 1500s. In fact, the Philippines was already a colony of Spain by mid-1500s. 300 years even before Japan started to learn the policy of imperialism. Spain occupied the Philippines for around 300 years.
Manila was the center of Spanish civil, military, religious, and commercial activity for Spain for the whole Philippine Islands. Opportunities for adding and expanding an empire started with the discovery of several sites and islands. The Philippines was not the first colony of Spain but expanding the empire reinvigorated as Spain needed a new trade route and a new state revenue.
If Japan annexed Korea under the guise of peace, Spain expanded to the Philippines with the guise of the conversion of Filipinos to Catholicism. In Spanish policy, the Church and the state was essentially linked. In fact, the state assumes the responsibility for religious establishments. Spain established an oligarchic system of local control. Several significant changes were made. Spain introduced private ownership and land titles. What resulted was the Spanish officials were granted land titles and many Filipinos were displaced on their own land. The farmers, instead of working for their gain on their land, were forced to work for the Spanish officials because according to the land titles, the officials legally owned their land. This is also similar to when the Japanese occupied several buildings and took away businesses from Korean businessmen. But on this case, Spain did it “legally” with papers as proof.
Spain has established a very strict social class but it was the opposition to the power of the clergymen that really sparked the insurgencies during Spanish rule. Clergymen live wealthily but preach living poorly. Religion was used as a tool to subjugate the Filipinos without the use of force. The Spanish were able to convert “Filipinos from a pagan religious belief to Christianity” (Leclerc & Hall, 2007). There were Spanish injustices towards Filipinos.
Similarities of Japanese and Spanish Imperialism
Japan and the West – in this particular case, Spain, were located in two different parts of the world but the aim is the same: “The goal and result of imperialism was the creation of colonies politically submissive and economically profitable to their European metropoles” (Headrick 11). Both countries aim to establish a strong economic base which will be profitable to the colonizer. Both took advantage of the natural resources found in the colony or annexed state. They made use of their resources for their own countries’ personal gain. Another similarity is the objective of pursuing of international prestige and authority. In essence, the goal and the objective is the same.
One similarity that can be noticed was the used of signed documents as well. Japan had treaties and protocols declaring annexation or complete control over Korea. The Spanish however, did it implicitly. They showed up with land titles and claimed the native Filipinos’ lands. The confused natives, unaware of such document existed, initially backed down.
Differences of Japanese and Spanish Imperialism
Though the goal of both countries in expanding is similar, there are more differences in the ways that each country gain international power. Japan was a brutal imperialist towards Korea and it did not bother to hide it. On the other hand, Spain used the guise of religion to subjugate the Filipinos with less use of arms. Spain and Western imperialists in general took over other countries using less violence.
The other difference is the reaction of the people towards the foreigners. There was little resistance towards Spanish settlement initially. It was during the latter part of the Spanish rule when Spain had already influenced the education and the culture of the Filipinos that they had realized their national identity. It was when Spain “modernized” and “industrialized” them that they realized that the Philippines should be deemed as theirs. The oppression by the Spanish was felt only during the latter part of the occupation.
Koreans however, already had an established culture during the time that the Japanese tried to occupy them. The annexation was immediately met with a bloody resistance where many Koreans died. The changes were felt immediately as the Japanese forced their own culture to a nation that already had a culture and language of their own.
The difference between the two countries lie on the way they try to take over and take control over the country. The Japanese did not have qualms shedding blood. Besides that, the Koreans were so oppressed and deprived of their own culture that insurgencies rose left and right – more blood was spilled during the insurgencies. Women were taken away from their homes to “service” the Japanese soldiers and men were taken away from their homes to join the battle for Japan’s gain.
Japan’s method was to separate Koreans so that they will not be able to form an organized opposition. Spain used a more psychological measure where they used religion to keep the Filipinos quiet but this only worked until the natives realized that they have been treated as a fool.
Conclusion
Japan and Spain have similarities and differences when it comes to annexing a state. The similarities come from the ideas and notions that the Western powers have set. Japan learned these ideas and applied it to pursue its own interests. Spain was one of the first colonizers that expanded their empire to almost all areas of the world.
During the late 1800’s, several countries have already applied imperialism in their policy. Japan, wanting to pursue international authority as well, followed the footsteps of the Western powers. Japan succeeded but it did not last. The failure of the Japanese to maintain an empire lies with its brutality towards its constituents. During that time, the culture and identity of several Asian countries were already established and widely practiced. Japan wanted another Japan. It forced its own culture. It did not aim to “modernize” like the West, it aimed to eliminate the other country’s culture. The West however, still acknowledged the culture but aims to modify it so that it may fit what they deemed was modern. The most powerful method that the West used was not arms but Christianity and religion. It’s planting the idea in people’s mind that the West realized as effective.
Spain maintained a more effective colony in the Philippines for the following reasons: religion as a psychological tool and a less developed culture. The natives were curious and were more open minded towards change. Besides that, the Spanish used less force when they initially tried to occupy the country.
Japan failed to maintain occupation in Korea for these reasons: brutality, force and an established culture and identity among its people. The Japanese started taking over the country with force – even assassinating the royal family through the process.
Works Cited
Beasley, William G. Japanese Imperialism 1894-1945. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Hagan, Kenneth J. American Gunboat Diplomacy and the Old Navy, 1877-1889. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1973.
Headrick, Daniel R. The Tools of Empire: Technology and European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Oxford University Press, 1981.
Hicks, George. The Comfort Women: Japan's Brutal Regime of Enforced Prostitution in the Second World War. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997.
Hoston, Germaine. "Marxism and Japanese Expansionism: Takahashi Kamekichi and the Theory of "Petty Imperialism"." Journal of Japanese Studies Vol. 10, No. 1 1984: 1-30.
Leclerc, Grégoire and Charles A. S Hall. Making World Development Work: Scientific Alternatives to Neoclassical Economic Theory. Albuquerque, New Mexico: University of New Mexico Press, 2007.
McClintock, Anne. Imperial Leather: Race, Gender and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest. London: Routledge, 1995.
Nahm, Andrew C. Korea: tradition & transformation: a history of the Korean people. Elizabeth, New Jersey: Hollym International Corp., 1996.
