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Social Contract Theory: Social Contract Theory was founded by Thomas Hobbes, a renowned English philosopher. According to this theory, the moral and political obligations of individuals depend upon an agreement (contract) among them for the formation of the society they belong to. The purpose of this contract is the establishment of a constitutional act for keeping the political body subordinate to moral values. Hobbes believes that social contract makes it possible for human beings to continue their survival on this planet. He maintained that by contracting socially, men surrender their inherent liberties for enjoying the safety and arrangement of the organized state. Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Locke have also contributed significantly to take this theory to the next level. According to Locke, social contract is necessary for the constitution of a civil society that may elect a civil government for itself. It is important to highlight that the social contract theory of the mentioned philosophers is dependent on the contractors’ consent.
Cultural Relativism: Cultural relativism refers to the customs, beliefs, practices, and ethics that are relative to a person within his individual social milieu. This theory proposes that the righteousness and wrongfulness are culture-specific. In simple words, it means that if one thing is regarded as moral in one society, another society may consider the same thing as immoral. Therefore, no one possesses the right of judging the morality of any society as there is no exact universal standard of morality. In the contemporary world, cultural relativism has an extremely important role to play as people are normally involved in criticizing other cultures without hesitation. For this reason, the significance of cultural relativism theory has increased.
Care Ethics: The ethics of care is a moral theory entailing that every relationship in human life has considerable moral significance. It asserts that all relationships necessitate the promotion of wellbeing of every caregiver and receiver in a social network. It implies that care requires one to maintain the world and fulfill the needs of oneself as well as others. It motivates people to care for the vulnerable, reliant, and needy. This theory was initially highlighted in the work of Milton Mayeroff. However, Nel Noddings and Carol Gilligan furthered the principles of this theory. Virginia Held, Annette Baier, Eva Feder Kittay, Joan Tronto, and Sara Ruddick have also contributed to the ethics of care.
Animal Theory: The indirect theory regarding animals denies them the moral status or identical consideration with human beings due to a lack of awareness, motivation, contemplation, or independence. Although these theories do not consider animals as equal to humans, they still necessitate the importance of not harming animals. René Descartes, Immanuel Kant, and Peter Carruthers have given considerable contributions in this theory. It also implies that human beings enjoy a superior position as compared to animals. This is because humans possess the ability to use reasons for guiding their behavior and conduct. On the other hand, animals do not have this ability. Instead, they are naturally competent to use their instincts. Thus, this theory involves the proposition that animals must continue to serve human beings and must not be positioned as equal to human beings.
Kantian Theory: Kantian Theory is a duty-oriented (deontological) theory of ethics that implies that the appropriateness or unfairness of actions is dependent on the fulfillment of duties, not on their consequences. It was propounded by Immanuel Kant who believed that it is the prime task of a person to determine his obligations. He assumes that the fulfillment of duties by an individual is extremely significant and valuable.
Utilitarianism: Utilitarianism is an important ethical theory that distinguishes righteousness and wrongness on the basis of the consequences of a person’s selection of actions. According to this theory, a person is required to demonstrate a selfless attitude by considering the wellbeing of others over his own interests. In other words, this theory implies that the proper guiding principle to live an ethical life is to take those steps that ensure the maximization of utility. In fact, utilitarianism encourages maximization of total benefit and the reduction of the negatives. Utilitarianism theory can also be considered an analysis of economy with a moral foundation. Jeremy Bentham, John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, G.E. Moore, R.M. Hare, and J. J. C. Smart are important contributors in this theory’s furtherance.
Ethical Egoism Theory: Ethical Egoism Theory refers to the philosophical implication that an individual’s self should be the motivational factor for his actions. It is one of the most important normative theories that address two kinds of egoism. The first kind is individual ethical egoism which asks individuals to look out for their unique personal interests. It proposes that people should be concerned about other people’s interests only to the extent that it is also advantageous for them. On the other hand, the other kind of ethical egoism is universal ethical egoism. This version maintains that people must act to the extent that is in their best interest. A lot of philosophers criticize this theory as it encourages the non-practice of altruistic nature.
