Abstract
In this paper is considered one of the most popular psychological theories – existential theory. This work is about the history of existential theory, its main questions, problems and purposes, about strengths and weaknesses of existential vision.
History of the Theory
Existentialism (or also the philosophy of existence) is a special area in the philosophy of the XX century, accentuate your attention on the uniqueness of human existence, proclaiming his irrational. Existentialism developed in parallel lines akin personalism and philosophical anthropology, from which it differs primarily the idea of overcoming (not disclosing) the person's own spirit and a greater emphasis on the depth of the emotional nature. Existential theory emerged in the mid-twentieth century, when the then existing exercises was not enough. Psychoanalysis and behaviorism have not considered adequately the special state of consciousness, so there is a new theory. According to her, each person is an individual that is unique and unique, so prized above all the freedom and the importance of individuality. The basis of this theory is taken the philosophy of Kierkegaard and the phenomenology of Edmund Husserl. Followers of existential direction are Jean - Paul Sartre, Camus, Heidegger, L. Shestov, Berdyaev and Jaspers (Appignanesi, R, 2001).
In pure existentialism as a philosophical direction never existed. The inconsistency of this term comes from the content of "existence", as it is, by definition, individual and unique, is the experience of a single individual, not like anyone.
This inconsistency is the reason that virtually none of the thinkers listed as existentialism, was not really existentialist philosopher. The only one, who clearly expressed their affiliation to this direction, was Jean-Paul Sartre. His position was identified in the report, "Existentialism is a Humanism", where he attempted to summarize individual aspirations existentialist thinkers of the early XX century.
According to existential psychology and psychotherapist R. Mai, existentialism is not just a philosophical trend, but rather a cultural movement, imprinted deep emotional and spiritual dimension of modern Western man, depicting the psychological situation in which he finds himself, the unique expression of psychological difficulties that he faced.
One of the first term "existential philosophy" (Ger. Existenzphilosophie) was introduced by Karl Jaspers in 1931 in "The spiritual situation of Time", and in 1938 it made its name in a separate paper. As the founder of existential philosophy of Kierkegaard, Jaspers calls. In 1939, after the death of Russian emigre philosopher Lev Shestov published his book, "Kierkegaard and the existential philosophy", but familiarity with the works of Kierkegaard, Shestov was only in 1928, when the Russian thinker wrote all his major works. In 1943, a book with a similar title releases Otto patients. The term existentialism uses the title of the work of Jean-Paul Sartre, which is divided into religious existentialism (Karl Jaspers, Gabriel Marcel) and atheistic (Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Simone de Beauvoir, Martin Heidegger).
Types of Problems Theory is Most Useful
According to K. Jaspers (1955), existentialism erects its origins to Kierkegaard, Nietzsche and Schelling. And also, through Heidegger and Sartre, genetically traced to Husserl's phenomenology (Camus existentialist thought even Husserl).
"Existential philosophy is the philosophy of human existence." Main Category philosophy of existentialism is existence.
In philosophy, the existence of the crisis was reflected optimistic liberalism, based on technological progress, but powerless to explain the instability, disorder of human life inherent feelings of fear, despair, and hopelessness.
According to the philosophy of existentialism to realize themselves as "existence", a person must be a "borderline situation" - for example, in the face of death. As a result, the world is becoming human "intimately close". The true way of knowledge, a way of penetrating the world of "existence" is declared intuition ("existential experience" Marcel, "understanding" in Heidegger, "existential epiphany" in Jaspers), which is an irrational interpreted Husserl's phenomenological method.
In existential psychology and the theory of humanistic psychotherapy, there are two postulates. The first postulate of this theory is the inevitability of death. It is impossible not to think about death, as to deny it stupid and unnatural. Everyone sooner or later realizes that his life is not eternal, conscious of the inevitability of the end of the means to be in a particular state of consciousness.
The second postulate - a unique personality principle, as mentioned previously. With regard to the treatment of mental pathologies, this means that every patient needs special developed just for him the treatment. Each case, each individual disease is therefore the treatment should not be the same. L. Binswanger developed direction Daseinsanalysis, according to which the main goal of the doctor - to help the individual find their own opportunities to apply them to solve problems. It should be noted that the concept of "mental illness" in existential psychotherapy does not exist. Mentally ill person has a different perspective on life around, he creates his own world in which it exists, but free in this world, he cannot be. Hence, there is a neurotic anxiety, leading to aggravation of the patient's condition.
According to this theory, there are several ways of existence. When a person lives only for him, it is talking about the one-dimensional mode of existence. Dualistic way refers to two people who love each other and living for each other. When a person enters into competition or conflict with others, he lives pluralistic way. There is a fourth strategy - a man lost in the crowd. This is called anonymous.
Throughout his life, man must evolve and improve. If it goes on, it means that the process of degradation. And it is fraught with serious mental pathologies.
The representative of the existential psychoanalysis Jean - Paul Sartre believed that the main thing - it's the freedom of man, that is, the ability to choose their attitude to any situation or phenomenon. Philosophers believe that if a person is faced with a problem, he can abandon the goal, towards which fell obstacle, and the latter persists itself. That is, a person can not change the world - to fix the problem, but it can change your own attitude or passively avoid obstacles. Freedom implies the selection of targets, but does not require its achievement.
According to Sartre, the source of morality serves people. His mind must conform to the true consciousness, that is "using his freedom, be yourself."
Another follower of existential theory, V. Frankel argued that in philosophical discussions about the meaning of existence lies the frustration of human life of its own. A truly happy person enjoys the present moment, taking life as it is. He is not tormented in search of answers to the perennial philosophical questions, not trying to justify their existence. He realizes that life is worth just for the sake of enjoying every moment, every minute. To reach a state of satisfaction by logging into a special state that is internally make a shift in consciousness, to restore the broken harmony. Then life will be perceived as a wonderful gift, without hesitation, whether it has any meaning or not.
One of the most well-known approaches in the study of special states of consciousness became established in 1976, Gestalt therapy. It was developed by F. Perls. The main principle of his theory is the integrity of all things. People combine separate items in Gestalt, or integrity. All nature is a gestalt, in which everything is interconnected. Inside this whole isolated "figures" - dynamic, unstable elements. The main condition for progress is the breath and awareness of their emotional and physical processes. This concept is similar to the principles of yoga: changing breathing and you can change its state to achieve tranquility or, conversely, to feel anxiety.
An interesting look at the pathological conditions of personality expressed eminent existentialist Maslow. He examined individuals experiencing sudden mystical ("peak") experiences. While such experiences are considered a serious violation, Maslow believed that they often have a positive effect, as having experienced them, people have a tendency to self-realization. In his opinion, the pathology - is unrealized potential human and avoid it can only find the field to activate its own capacity.
Rogers proposed client-therapy, according to which a person has a tendency to develop positive skills in the presence of an optimal environment. The therapist must help the patient to realize their own possibilities and find a use for them.
Thus, the existential theory sees the main problem in the alienation of people from their own feelings and emotions, so the problem is reduced to psychotherapy to help the patient to determine their place in the world to find their own destiny. Treatment of mental disorders is carried out by introducing the patient into a special state of consciousness to eliminate alienation arising from the outside world (Fallico, A, 1962).
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Theory
Emmy van Deurzen writes, that despite the fact that the existential psychology usually refers to the humanist tradition, she has pronounced distinctive features that allow it to declare its independence. Humanistic approach is taken functioning quality that look positive, so to speak, at their face value, and use them to achieve excellence in the understanding of life through the constant deepening of consciousness and development. Existential Psychology also contains unique elements that can be understood at a finer classification models actualization and achievement.
Actualization theory based on the fact that if in the process of interaction with significant others people systematically receives unconditional positive rewards, inherent in it from birth potentials will be expressed in his behavior under the influence of innate tendencies toward actualization. Actualization of innate potentials leads to the development of lifelong learning, the formation of personality and achieving excellence and - in the presence of support and approval from others - is an automatic, teleological and a relatively easy process. Human development is terminated or sent to the wrong path only when the support of people with whom he believed to be more recognized due to themselves (selfish) interests, rather than unconditional and selfless.
In contrast, the theory of achieving perfection (paradigmatic model which is existential psychology) makes assumptions that alienate them from the theories of actualization. According to the theories of attaining perfection, a person develops throughout his life regardless of whether he receives from others unconditional support or not. For existentialists development is determined by the decision of the person rather than to grant him the nature of the potentials. Although existentialists and agree that it is important and profound mind, and formed a personality, their understanding of the processes that lead to and that, and another, different from the understanding of these processes proponents of actualization.
Existential psychology comes from the fact that the human tendency to conceptualize symbolically, to imagine and evaluate the continuous flow of their social, biological and physical experience is innate, purely human abilities. Use of this cognition gives individualized experience (subjective) and deepens the sense of awareness that the nature and direction of life is made up of numerous decisions made by the individual. Each decision results in the future, or a new experience, or to repeat the same experiment, which was already a person in the past. Existential psychology emphasizes not anything so specific and prescriptive teleologically as innate potentials. For existentialists, whatever the sequence of motions and the development that occurs in certain people, it is based on an ongoing basis, recharged their separate decisions.
As to the question of specific stages of development, leading to digestible lifestyle, then existential psychology answers it somewhat vague. However, it draws a clear boundary between the early and later on (later) development. The main objective of early child development - learn to perceive itself as a hardy and brave man. To facilitate such learning child, parents and significant others - ideally - should take his self-expression and to create an environment that offers the child variety, support and opportunities to make efforts to achieve success, as well as certain restrictions. In such an environment the child learns to perceive himself as a person capable to keep his word, to control them, and ready for the challenge, which will lead to the development of courage. Further development - more independent, as teenagers, are gradually moving away from their parents, begins to rely more on their own decisions and the interpretation of their effects. They pass the stage aesthetics and idealism, when freed from parental care and uphold the values that should determine their own lives. Taught not afraid of difficulties, they are likely able to learn from their failures, and it is the ideal basis for further development. Knowing the limits of aesthetics and idealism, these people are included in the maturity or time of an authentic lifestyle.
David Cooper (1999) writes that individuals are living authentic (real) life, showing their very personal, unique qualities in their definitions:
1) Themselves as people who are able - through the decision-making and interpretation of their consequences - to influence their own social and biological expertise;
2) The society, how to create actions of individuals and therefore modifiable efforts of these people.
Authentic Lifestyle characterized by harmony and innovation. The biological and social experiences of people, whose lives are authentic, marked refinement, taste, intimacy and love. Courage helps them accept the inevitable doubts as "satellites" develop their own opinions, and they do not allow doubts to influence the adoption of certain decisions. Although authentic people can mistake on your bill to them - thanks to careful attention to yourselves and general reflexivity - a tendency to rapid corrective action. That's why they have not accumulated and ontological guilt over missed opportunities or about the apparent intrinsic surface.
On the contrary, young people, early development which took place in conditions far from ideal, never gain the courage and, literally, remain dependent and amorphous until the end of his days. In making decisions, they are not able to rely on their own strength and can not use their cognitive abilities to generate authenticity based on their own life experiences. The above applies primarily to their inability to learn from mistakes; such people are in a hurry to disown them, rather than to understand what they did wrong. Rather than enter into a genuine period of late development, they copy the behavior of those around them, showing conformist, immature lifestyle.
People with conformist lifestyle define themselves solely as executors of social roles. Expression of symbolization, imagination and evaluation of them inhibited, leading to a stereotyped, fragmented functioning. Their biological and social experience is far from the refinement and more like a contractual relationship than a relationship based on feelings. Accumulation of ontological guilt, which is the result of what conformists prefer the past and not the future, lead to the emergence of a sense of insecurity and worthlessness. In their worldview dominated materialism and pragmatism.
Conclusion
The philosophy of existentialism is an irrational reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment and classical German philosophy. According to the existentialist philosopher, the main flaw of rational thinking is that it emanates from the principle of antithesis of subject and object, that is, divides the world into two spheres - objective and subjective. All reality, including human, rational thinking is considered only as a subject, the "essence" of the knowledge that can be manipulated in terms of subject-object. Genuine philosophy from the perspective of existentialism, must come from the unity of subject and object. This unity is embodied in the "existence", i.e. a kind of irrational reality.
Significant place in the philosophy of existentialism takes formulation and solution of the problem of freedom, which is defined as "choice" personality of one of the countless possibilities. Objects and animals do not have the freedom, as soon possess the essence, the essence. But man grasps his essence throughout life and is responsible for every act committed by them, cannot explain the errors of "circumstances". Thus, man is conceived as a "project” building by himself. Ultimately, the ideal of human freedom is the freedom of the individual from society.
References
Appignanesi, Richard; Oscar Zarate (2001). Introducing Existentialism. Cambridge, UK: Icon. ISBN 1-84046-266-3.
Appignanesi, Richard (2006). Introducing Existentialism (3rd ed.). Thriplow, Cambridge: Icon Books (UK), Totem Books (USA). ISBN 1-84046-717-7.
Cooper, David E. (1999). Existentialism: A Reconstruction (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-21322-8.
Deurzen, Emmy van (2010). Everyday Mysteries: a Handbook of Existential Psychotherapy (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-37643-3.
Fallico, Arthuro B. (1962). Art & Existentialism. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Jaspers, Karl (1955). Reason and Existenz. Translated by William Earle. New York: Noonday Press.
Jaspers, Karl (1997). General Psychopathology - Volumes 1 & 2. Translated by J. Hoenig and Marian W. Hamilton. Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press.
