Introduction
The 18th century is one of the most significant years in the history of man especially with regard to slave trade and slavery. This is because in its last stages, the world experienced two of the most renowned and successful anti-colonial revolutions against slave trade both in Latin America as well as in the Caribbean. The first, which was the revolution against Latin American slavery culminated in 1783. Nine years later, the world witnessed a second Haitian revolution which commenced with massive insurrection of slaves in the region in 1791, culminating with the first of slavery abolitions in French colonies in 1793. This Haitian revolution opened doors for more mass action by the enslaved in France, leading to total abolition of slavery throughout the French empire later the following year. In addition, revolution later opened doors for the struggle for independence in Haiti from the French colonial rule a move that bore fruits in 1804 when Haiti gained independence.This paper as a result has sought to analyze the slavery conditions of the 18th century in both Saint-Domingue and Latin America. It explains how the abolition of slavery in Saint-Domingue and Latin America was caused by social, economic and political factors as well as powerful individuals who led the revolutions to victory.
Abolition of Slave trade in Saint Domingue
Saint-Domingue was one of the French colonies and also happened to have the largest enslaved population in the Caribbean. At the time, each slave master, who was primarily of the white race, was assigned seven slaves who helped work in cane plantations. This led to a booming sugar business and made France one of the world’s richest colonies due to the large number of African slaves who totaled to a staggering 500,000. This large number of slaves contributed to the manpower that lead to the production of over 30% of world sugar and coffee. Slavery was very harsh at the time. Slaves were forcefully compelled to work in sugar plantations and were constantly tortured and underfed. As a result, a series of rebellions arose after the French begun to deny the slaves their fundamental right to citizenship albeit the declaration by the French national assembly concerning the rights of individuals. This campaign attracted the attention of wealthy free men in the empire who openly advocated for voting rights among the enslaved,marginalized and other peoples of color. This led to the mass action of insurrection by the enslaved in 1791, dubbed the Haitian revolution which led to its independence in 1804.
The revolution took Europe by surprise as the enslaved Africans attacked and burned more than 1000 plantations where they worked. They torched all equipment that they used in the plantations including machetes and hooks despite killing hundreds of whites in the chaos. French soldiers were, however, adamant to guarantee people of color their freedom because they were confident that they would curb and put down the uprising as they had done with other small revolts in the past. The revolution continued to increase in the region and within two months the rebels were in control of a larger part of the northern colony. Following a fierce battle between Toussaint L'Ouverture,who emerged as the leader of the slaves, with the French and later the British, the enslaved Africans were able to fight for their freedom and Saint Domingue, now Haiti, was declared a republic and slavery was abolished. This put a stop to three centuries of slavery following the defeat of the French and British armies. LaurentDubois wraps the story of slavery in Saint-Domingue into a tale of insurrection, war, heroism and prestige and establishes the revolution in Haiti as a fundamental source of history towards the country’s fight for democracy and observance of human rights.
Slavery in Latin America
Slavery in Latin America was mainly practiced in the pre-colonial period during which, prisoners from war in Africa as well as other able bodied men were captured by colonialists and transported to Latin America where they were enslaved to the French, Spanish, Peruvian and Portuguese colonies. Slave trade practiced in the area primarily formed the basis of the Spanish Casta System, leaving a renowned legacy which was witnessed by the presence of the Afro-Latino population in America. The overly practiced slave trade which happened for centuries gradually caused the emancipation of blacks as slavery continued to spread its roots in the pacific coast of southern America in the 19th century. The practice included the kidnapping of Polynesians by the slave traders from Peru. These slaves were forcefully compelled to work in mines in the guano industries, which were used for the production and manufacture of fertilizers as they had exceptionally rich content of nitrogen, potassium and phosphates.
Latin America was significantly influenced by the presence of African slaves in the area. The impact was immensely felt on their cultures after the slaves arrived during the early stages of exploration and settlement by Spanish military expeditions. Slavery was severe as was in other parts of the world. The slaves complained of torture and forced labor in the mines. They were also denied the fundamental right to own a family with exceptions to slaves who had knowledge in reading and writing. This madeBrazil to have the largest number of legal marriages compared to other regions where slavery was practiced. Scholars and historians believe that Mexico and Peru were the largest importers of African slaves. The Catholic Church was the main defendant against the practice of slavery and slave trade and organized brotherhoods that were actively involved in the mobilizing people to contribute funds which could be used to purchase freedom of their slave members.
The rich content that modern history scholarship borrowsfrom the two revolutions is remarkable. This is because LatinAmerican courses as well as other history courses consistently refer to the historybehindrevolutions when it comes to shaping the events of the future from the history of the past. As a result,the stories of both revolutions give a rich source of historical information. When intertwined form the basis of the aspects leading to the history of Atlantic revolutions with particular interests in the United States and Saint Domingue as well as the factors leading to the abolition of slavery as will be discussed below.
Political factors
Slavery in Latin America did not have widely spread global consequences as was experienced in other parts of the world where slavery was practiced. However, the abolition of slave trade in the area which happed before that of saint Domingue had a particular effect of siring up therevolution against the French by African slaves in Saint-Domingue. This caused powerful and new political ideologies, which came as a result of the French king’s support for the rebels in northern America. This also prompted the laying aside of laws and regulation by the national assembly of France which were geared towards the protection of the rights of peoples of color in the entire French colony. The revolution in France lead to a significant transformation in the social structure of the country asits unfolding formed the main argumentative basis for the need to abolish slave trade in its most influential colony, Saint Domingue. The lack of strong anchorage of political ideologies among the people as well as the weakening of governance created room for mass mobilization among the enslaved, thereby setting the stage for the possibility of emergence of a revolution which begun in 1790. A heated struggle for liberation ensued in the late 1791 leading to a revolt that saw the transformation of the French Caribbean from an economic stronghold to a warzone that lead to the killing of thousands of men and women of the white race in Saint Domingue.
The revolution that ensued in Saint-Domingue strangely contrasted to the revolution in America. One common characteristic between the two areas was that slavery formed the backbone of economic prowess and progression in the areas. However saint Domingue had 90% of its population enslaved and once the revolutions begun in the 1790s it was next to impossible to come into terms with the fact that the revolution would become a success as the French had stopped other revolts that had ensued in the same manner in the past. Under the leadership of Toussaint L'Ouverture, whose army mainly comprised of blacks fought and within a period of two month, they had control over a significant portion north of the island. The revolt continuedfor the next three years and by 1793, there were no slaves in the areaamidst retaliation efforts from the French which were fruitless. This culminated in the declaration of saint Domingue as a republic in 1804 under the rule of an ex-slave general Jean-Jacques Dessalines. The cohesiveness of the revolution made it the quickest and most successful revolts in abolishment of slave trade and slavery.
Widespread ideology of universal human rights
Scholars and historians have consented with the fact that education and changes in political ideologies among people in pre-colonial era was a factor that increased the urge of liberation among the enslaved especially in Latin America where slavery was less severe. Such ideas of universal rights which were inherited from other successful revolutions were a contributing factor that helped shape the Caribbean struggle against slavery. This anti-slavery revolution mainly perpetrated by people of African origin, formed a potential threat to selfish interests of settlers and colonialists across the world including the United States. In contrast the enslaved in the United Statesreadily found consolation and acceptance within the borders of this nation, the independence of Saint Domingue was not acknowledged until the concession came from France in 1825 prompting the united states to do the same in 1862. According to scholars and historians the growth trajectory of both countries in terms of economic and political prowess has, however, elicited mixed reactions among the people on the extent to which both revolutions influenced each other.
Economic geography
The economic influence of the United States today is a contrast to what the situation was back in the 18th century, and was way behind the economic prowess that the Caribbean boasted of. This was mainly attributed to the sugar and coffeeplantations that were put up by the French in saint Domingue and Jamaica. These plantations provided the main raw material for the production of sugar and processed coffee, which was exported by the French thereby making them create a lot of wealth from the business transactions with the English. The plantations also steered the growth of other industries like the brewing industry which utilized molasses obtained from sugar manufacturers. By the 18thcentury, the French empire was actively involved in inter-colonial trade and had established trading portswheremerchants could convene and engage in barter trade. These trade patterns continued during the Haitian revolution as the merchants from the United states continued to supply ammunition and other weapons for the rebels in exchange of finished products thereby funding the revolt indirectly. This still continued through to the 19th centuryeven after Haiti attained independence, besides the fact that the United States had recognized the independence of Haiti.
The trade relationships between the two colonies gave rise to new political ideologies and ramifications. In the northern part of America the booming trade business and associations begun to give rise to the demand of free trade that would become part of the American Revolution. After the success of the American Revolution, the French begun to see the need to extend business with the aim of profit generation to other parts of the Empire prompting the demand for more liberalization of trade which was occasionally effected through a number of violent revolts. The events of 1789 in France created a new opening for individuals to pursue political interests and aspirations such included more economic autonomy. The main beneficiarieswere the Americans as they had been successful in securing political and economy advantages amidst the practice of slave trade. The French were concerned with creation of autonomy in trade since they faced the fear that the white planters in Saint-Domingue would be affected by the encroaching revolution against slave trade.
Agency and power of individuals
The connection between the American Revolution and the actions of the enslaved Africans in saint Domingue under the leadership ofJean-Jacques Dessalines become more complex as fewer troops were sent to America to help fight in the AmericanRevolution. In 1779, a lot of troops mainly made up of African slaves were used to reinforce the French and the services they offered were important in the siege of Savannah. Not much information was recorded or documented about the involvement of people of black descent in the war, but a lot of history from the people of Haiti attests to this. Such include history recorded by activists like Andre’ Regaud and Henry Christophe who claimed to be part of the endeavors which were planned and organized by the French empire.
Social cultural factors
The results gained by the slaves from such forms of collaboration also remains undocumented but it is evident that at the time the people held strong beliefs that military expedition was a source of pride and brought a lot of prestige among the people. In effect, the rise of a military force that caused the slaves from such forms of collaboration also remains undocumented but it is evident that at the time the people held strong beliefs that military expedition was a source of pride and brought a lot of prestige among the people. In effect, the rise of a military force that could later turn against his slave master and put an end to slavery in Saint-Domingue can be considered as one of such endeavors whose success was as a result of premeditated war technique learned from the French. The zeal in the people can be attributed to their desire to achieve liberation which would later become a source of pride among the people of Haiti.
The resultant effect of the revolt of slave trade was radical and challenging in nature. The birth of an independent nation and its success can be attributed to the way the slaves transformed themselves into revolt leaders and later fully-fledged citizens who attained independence in 1804. In comparison the United States was still struggling with efforts of formation of a new republic and was close in this agenda. However, the urban life demographic geography faced major foreign intrusion in 1790s when a large population of people of African descent decided to flee the skirmishes resulting from the revolution and fled to urban cities in America as refugees. Due to the diversified knowledge they got from working in French populations these refugees became an integral part of the social fabric of life in the United States of America. The refugees steered the common need for enslaved Africans to liberate themselves as their counterparts had done in saint Domingue, a factor that helped elucidate the heated debates that took place in Philadelphiaconcerning slavery. In the debates, it was necessary to include the story of Haiti, and this formed the turning point of how the people perceived the situation in the Caribbean. In 1793 after the end of slavery in saint Domingue, a delegation of representatives lead by Jean Baptiste stopped in Philadelphia on their way to France and the Americans in the region saw him as a sign of liberation among the people of Saint-Domingue making them hunger and thirst for their declaration as a free state. This team went into France where they led a revolution that was aimed at total abolition of slave trade among the entire French colony. This fight initiated by the people of Haiti helped the black Americans in their fight to push for new regimes in the administration leading to the election of the first black into the American congress whereas several blacks did the same in the French administrationgiving rise to all-inclusivegovernments for the people.
In the late 1981, Napoleon Bonaparte begun to reverse engineer the political doctrines that were used in the new Saint-Domingue by changing the policies of emancipation resulting to the strikeout against Toussaint L’Ouverture. This gave birth to a new class of leadership who formed thepolitical elite of the republic of Haiti. The change of policies and conflict of interests later saw the rise of a Haitian government after the country attained its independence in early 1804. The revolutionaries who pioneered this were guided by the principle that they would rather die as a result of conceding defeat from the French rather than facing death from the harsh treatment they were subjected into while they were slaves in whiteplantations. This wake of independence was also accompanied by a lot of massacres of the remaining French planters in the island.
Conclusion
The 18thcentury contributed to a lot of diversification in the way in which people in the globe perceived slavery. This formed the beginning of a new ideology among the people of the world as the revolutions at the time put an end to slavery. This prompted the ideology of universalism of human rights as the American Bill of rights and the French Declaration of the rights of man were formulated. It is also evident that the socio-political factors such as the need for prestige, and the economic activities that were carried at the time were a major contributing factor to the rise of insurrections across the globe. The presence of staunch and powerful leaders such as Toussaint L’Ouverture of Saint-Domingue was a factor that led to the conquering of colonial slavery regimes of the 18th century.
