Introduction
Psychology is a vast field. There are many laws, principles, and theories that govern the train of thoughts of psychologists and mental health professionals working in the field. Basically, psychology is a branch of science that is concerned with the academic and applied discipline of studying behaviors and mental functions of animals, which in this case, would be humans. Psychology is not only concerned with studying the behaviors and mental functions of an individual because it may also aim to study the behaviors and mental functions of a group or population. The objective of this paper is to discuss psychology in general, focusing on the contribution that the most prominent psychological theorists have made, and the most commonly used theories by contemporary mental health professionals. It is often best to start by naming some of the sub-disciplines or branches of psychology because psychological theories are often categorized based on the branch of psychology which they belong.
Psychological Theories and Theorists
In psychology, we have behavior theories, learning theories, cognitive theories, developmental theories, social psychology theories, personality theories, and humanist theories.
Behavioral Theories or Behaviorism
Behavioral psychology, which is also often referred to as behaviorism, is a branch of psychology that is mainly guided by the idea that the only way how an individual can acquire a certain behavior would be through condition, which can either be operant or classical. These two conditioning theories, classical and operant conditioning are essential in the field of behavioral psychology. One thing that is common among these two is that they both lead to learning. The factor that makes these two distinct from one another is the fact that they each pertain to a different method of learning. Classical conditioning was first theorized by a Russian physiologist named Ivan Pavlov . Pavlov theorized that an individual can learn or acquire a behavior, or in some cases, develop a habit by placing a neutral signal before a reflex. The key work here that would be important in comparing classical to operant condition is the word before. Operant conditioning was first theorized by the renowned American psychologist in the field of behavioral psychology, B.F. Skinner. He theorized that an individual can learn or acquire a behavior or habit by implementing a reinforcement or punishment system. In the case of operant conditioning, the signal (the supplement and punishment system) serves as the signal. In it, the signal is placed after the individual demonstrates the behavior compared to classical conditioning where the signal is placed before the reflex or behavior. Also, it has to be noted that classical conditioning focuses on automatic and or involuntary behaviors—which is also why in most literatures in the field of psychology, behaviors learned via this conditioning method are also referred to as reflexes; while operant conditioning focuses on voluntary actions and behaviors, and on promoting or inhibiting them. In general, placing a supplementary signal after a voluntary behavior reinforces or promotes that behavior; while punishments inhibit it. Among the two, operant conditioning is the more contemporary. Operant conditioning also appears to be the more prevalently used conditioning method in the field of behavioral psychology.
There is more to behavioral psychology than operant and classical conditioning because behavioral psychology is actually a branch of psychology that combines the different elements of philosophy and sociology. Some of the most prominent names in the field are B.F. Skinner, and John B. Watson. Most of the principles and theories in behavioral psychology reflect the work of these two. Classic behavioral psychology school of thought suggests that behavioral psychology should be more focused on the voluntary and or observable behavior and reactions of animals and people and not with the involuntary and or unobservable ones that exist in their minds .
Theory of Cognitive Development
Almost everyone in the field of psychology is, on varying extents, familiar or at least has heard of the works and the principles behind the works of the psychologist, Jean Piaget. One of his most prominent contributions in the field of cognitive psychology is the development of the Four Stages of Cognitive Development. Some literatures in the field argue that this theory, the stages of cognitive development, lies between the boundaries of both cognitive and developmental psychology. Nonetheless, no one can argue that this theory was so comprehensively made considering the leaps and the level of general knowledge about people’s behaviors and mental functions during the time Piaget developed this theory. This theory mainly focuses on the nature and the various developmental mechanisms of human intelligence . At first glance, that classic definition may look a lot but in reality, Jean Piaget managed to summarize those stages and mechanisms into four stages, hence the name four stages of cognitive development. Piaget theorized that knowledge acquisition and cognitive development is not a one-time wherein an individual stops learning a certain skill after having a certain encounter or experience but rather a result of a progressive reorganization of thoughts and mental processes as a result of numerous and not only one environmental experiences. He also argued that biological maturation—that is, the maturational processes (anatomically and physiologically) that occur inside the brain as one ages, also contribute to cognitive development. The four stages in the theory are: the Sensorimotor Stage, the Pre-Operational Stage, the Concrete Operational Stage, and the Formal Operational Stage. During the sensorimotor stage, infants and toddlers develop cognitively through sensory encounters and simple manipulation of external objectives. During the second stage, a kid learns how to perform pretend play but exhibits signs of gaps in logic and inability to take and accept the point of view of other people. During the third stage, the concrete operational stage, kids start to develop signs of being able to think logically; they may however show signs of inability to think outside the box; they may also show struggle in understanding and creating abstract and hypothetical thoughts and concepts. In the fourth and final stage, the formal operational stage, there is a dramatic increase in logic; the individual finally exhibits signs of ability to use deductive reasoning and to understand and create abstract and hypothetical ideas and concepts .
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson is a prominent personality in the field of developmental psychology, thanks to his major contribution to the field that is the creation of the stages of psychosocial development theory. In this theory, he explains how a healthy person’s psychosocial skills develop through age, from infancy to late-adulthood, with the accomplishment of milestones in each stage serving as an advantage, but not necessarily a prerequisite to the accomplishment of milestones in the next stages . The 8 stages of psychosocial development are: Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, Initiative vs. Guilt, Industry vs. Inferiority, Identity vs. Confusion, Intimacy vs. Isolation, Generativity vs. Stagnation, and Integrity vs. Despair. The names of each stage are often reflective of the type of psychosocial skills they that is expected to be accomplished at that stage, at least in the case of normal and or healthy individuals.
Theory of Self-Actualization
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is one of the golden standards still being used in the field of psychology today. Abraham Maslow was an American psychologist who theorized that an individual can achieve the final stage of development, the self-actualization stage once all the needs in the lower spectrum on the hierarchy of needs are met. Below self-actualization, the other needs represent esteem, love and belonging, safety, and physiological, with physiological needs being the most basic of needs and self-actualization, followed by esteem needs (and so on) being the most complex . Abraham Maslow first proposed this theory in his presentation of his paper in 1943, A Theory of Human Motivation . This theory, at least according to Maslow when he first presented it to the public were based on his observations and study of exemplary people such as Jane Addams, Frederick Douglass, Albert Einstein, Eleanor Roosevelt, among others, instead of the mentally ill and or incapable people saying that “the study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens can yield only a crippled psychology and a crippled philosophy” .
Psychosexual Theory
Sigmund Freud was known as the founding father of psychoanalysis. He was an Austrian-born neurologist who later on in his career, proved to be one of the pioneers in the discipline of psychoanalysis. He was best known for his theory about the Stages of Psychosexual Development. According to him, there are five stages of psychosexual development as guided by the theory of sexual infantilism. Those five stages are: Oral (from birth to 1 year, characterized by sucking, biting, and chewing), Anal (1 to 3 years, characterized by bowel movements), Phallic (3 to 6 years, characterized by genital stimulation, attraction to opposite-sex parent, imitation of same-sex parent), Latency (6 to puberty years, characterized by cognitive and social development), and Genital (Puberty to death, characterized by the development of sexual and intimate adult relationships).
Conclusions
The theories and theorists presented in this paper represent only a small amount of the progress of work done in the field of psychology. It would take hundreds, if not thousands, of pages of work just to summarize all previous and existing psychological theories and theories the field of psychology has encountered throughout its lifetime. The theories Psychosexual Stages of Development by Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development Theory, Abraham Maslow’s theory of Self-Actualization, B.F. Skinner’s theory of Operant Conditioning, and Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development can all be considered as great leaps and discoveries in the field. The field of psychology is, however, a continuously evolving one. It is not static. It is dynamic.
References
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