1.1: Structure and Function of reproductive organs
Diagram of female reproductive organs
AC 1.2 Testosterone, Progesterone and Oestrogen
Oxford definitions of Testosterone, Progesterone and Oestrogen. These are as follows:
- Testosterone: Testosterone is a steroid hormone stimulating development of male secondary sexual characteristics.
- Progesterone: Progesterone is a steroid hormone that maintains pregnancy and prevents further ovulation. It is also used in oral contraceptive pills.
- Oestrogen: A groups of steroid hormones, which promotes the development, and maintenance of female sexual characteristics.
The Menstrual CycleInterview of three women regarding their experience of menstrual cycle. Three women, Mrs. A, Miss B and Mrs. C, were interviewed regarding their experience of the menstrual cycle. Their experiences related to menstrual cycle are as follows:
Q1. How long do her periods last?
Ans. Her periods last for approximately 4-5 days
Q2.What is the approximate length of the cycles?
Ans. Her periods come regularly after about 30 days.
Q3. Are the periods regular or not?
Ans. The periods are fairly regular except that they might be delayed by 1-2 day or come 1-2 days prior to the date of previous cycles.
Q4. How is blood flow like during the menses?
Ans. The flow during the menses is moderate.
Q5. How many sanitary pads does she require to change every day?
Ans. She is required to change about 2-3 sanitary pads per day during the first 2-3 days.
Q6. Does she experience any pain/ other symptoms during the periods?
Ans. There is just slight discomfort on the first two days. Besides this, there is no other problem.
Q7. Does she require taking any medicines during the periods?
Ans. The pain is not so severe as to require her to take some painkillers.
Q8. At what age did she experience menarche?
Ans. 11 years
Miss B.
Q1. How long do her periods last?
Ans. Her periods last for about 5-6 days
Q2.What is the approximate length of the cycles?
Ans. Her periods come regularly after every 28-30 days.
Q3. Are the periods regular or not?
Ans. The periods are regular coming after each month.
Q4. How is blood flow like during the menses?
Ans. The flow during the periods is somewhat heavy.
Q5. How many sanitary pads does she require to change every day?
Ans. She is required to change 7-8 sanitary pads per day during the first 2-3 days of her periods.
Q6. Does she experience any pain/ other symptoms during the periods?
Ans. There is slight discomfort and bloating on the first day.
Q7. Does she require taking any medicines during the periods?
Ans. She does not require taking any medicines for the discomfort she experiences during her periods.
Q8. At what age did she experience menarche?
Ans. 13 years
Q1. How long do her periods last?
Her periods last for 6-7 days.
Q2.What is the approximate length of the cycles?
Ans. Her cycles are irregular, varying in length from 15 days to 40 days.
Q3. Are the periods regular or not?
Ans. Her cycles are extremely irregular. At times, she has periods twice in a month and at times she has periods after 40 days to 2 months.
Q4. How is blood flow like during the menses?
Ans. The blood flow during her periods is moderate.
Q5. How many sanitary pads does she require to change every day?
Ans. She is required to change about 2-3 sanitary pads per day during the first 2-3 days. Q6.Does she experience any pain/ other symptoms during the periods?
Ans. She experiences extreme pain during her periods.
Q7. Does she require taking any medicines during the periods?
Ans. Many a times she is forced to take painkillers to obtain relief from pain during her periods.
Q8. At what age did she experience menarche?
Ans. 15 years
Internet related information about menstrual cycle
The menstrual phase usually lasts for five days and involves disintegration and sloughing of the superficial layers of the inner lining of the uterus. A typical menstrual cycle comprises of 28 days. Ovulation occurred in the middle of the menstrual cycle, i.e. day 14 of a typical cycle. The first 14 days of the cycle, before the menstruation occurs form the proliferative phase, while the next 14 days of the cycle form the secretory phase (Karriem-Norwood, 2013).
c) Comparison of the interviewer findings and what I had discovered on the internet. How knowledgeable are my interviewees about the menstrual cycle?
All the three women who were interviewed were well aware of the fact that menstrual cycles occurred as a result of a change in the levels of female hormones. However, none of them could name these hormones correctly. All three women were well aware of the fact that normal periods last for five days (± 3 days) and normal menstrual cycles last for 28 days (± 1 week). All three women also knew that ovulation normally occurs mid-way between the cycle, i.e. on the fourteenth day in a 28 day-long cycle. Both Miss B and Mrs. C were well aware that excessive pain during periods is related to the production of certain types of chemical by the uterine muscles. All women were aware that irregular periods could occur normally or due to some pathology in the uterus, most likely abnormality being fibroid uterus. All three women realised that a moderate amount of bloating and abdominal cramps is common during the first few days of periods. Use of hot water bottles and non-prescription medicines such as paracetamol, ibuprofen, etc. help in providing relief from pain in the majority of cases. All three women said that they knew that normal women may have irregular periods during first few years following the onset of menses. All three women were aware that every woman experiences menstrual cycles the onset of puberty. This phase is known as menarche. Menstrual cycles cease in every woman when she grows old. This phase is known as the menopause.
Fertilisation
AC 2.3/2.4: Embryo and placenta Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary (2010) definition of embryo and placenta. This is as follows:
Placenta. Placenta is a flattened circular organ in the uterus of pregnant eutherian mammals, which nourishes and maintains the fetus through the umbilical cord.
Embryo. Embryo is an unborn and unhatched offspring in the process of development. It especially denotes an unborn human being in the uterus at eight weeks from conception.
Early stages of the embryo
Once the oocyte has been extruded out from the ovary, it moves from the ovary to the uterine tube, where it may get fertilized by the male gamete, resulting in the formation of a zygote. The zygote, which is a diploid cell with 46 chromosomes, then undergoes numerous cleavage divisions to produce cells known as blastomeres. For three days as the blastomeres continue to divide, they produce a solid, mulberry-like ball of cells. This 16-celled ball is called the morula. The morula enters the uterine cavity approximately three days after fertilization and floats around in the cavity for a few days. During this time, fluid gradually accumulates between the morula’s cells, transforming the morula into a blastocyst (Saxena, 2012). The embryonic period begins from third week following ovulation and extends up to 10 weeks of gestation. The blastocyst or the future embryo eventually gets converted into two types of cells: (1) trophoblast cells and (2) an inner cell mass. The inner cell mass is destined to form the various tissues of the embryo. The trophoblast comprises of outer single layer of flattened cells, which later get converted into the future placenta. The cavity of the blastocyst is called the blastocoele.
Various physical and physiological changes during pregnancy and lactation are related to the interplay between various hormones. If the pregnancy occurs following ovulation, the function of corpus luteum continues to be maintained in order to ensure sustained progesterone production for the developing embryo. Once the embryo gets implanted, hormones such as human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and human placental lactogen (hPL) help in maintaining the growth and function of corpus luteum. Between 6–8 weeks of gestation, the functions of corpus luteum get transferred to placenta and it becomes responsible for production of various protein and steroid hormones, such as hypothalamic-like hormones; pituitary-like hormones, various pregnancy proteins (PAPP-A), relaxin, prolactin, atrial natriuretic peptide, etc., growth factors, steroid hormones (estrogen, progesterone and cortisol), hCG, hPL, etc. (White and Porterfield, 2012)
- Endocrine mechanism of milk ejection: sucking of the breasts by the baby causes the stimulation of the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, causing the release of oxytocin. This leads to the contraction of myoepithelial cells resulting in milk ejection. (West and Marasco, 2008) Prolactin stimulates production of milk by the mammary glands present in the breasts.
- Mechanism of labor: During labor, there is an increased release of oxytocin from the maternal pituitary and an increased synthesis of contraction-associated proteins, both of which stimulate uterine contractions.
The two books, which I referred to for finding information, related to hormonal changes during labor, childbirth and lactation mainly differed in their presentation. While the book by Portland and White mainly referred to the theoretical aspect of the various hormones involved, the book by West focused more on the practical aspects related to the effect of hormones on various physiological processes.
I agree that the attached work is all my own and that the work of others has been referenced appropriately.Signature: Date:
References
- KARRIEM-NORWOOD, V. (2013). All about menstruation. WebMD. [Online] Available from http://teens.webmd.com/girls/all-about-menstruation. Accessed: 20 March October 2014.
- SAXENA, R. (2012). Snapshots in obstetrics and gynecology. New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers. 3-5.
- WEST, D., and MARASCO, L. (2008). The Breastfeeding Mother's Guide to Making More Milk. . Philadelphia: McGraw-Hill. 3-5.
- WHITE, B., and PORTERFIELD, S. (2012). Endocrine and Reproductive Physiology. Philadelphia: Mosby.
