Jane Doe
Introduction
Women’s rights throughout the world have continued to be the subject of human rights concerns for members of the various nations and regulatory groups throughout the world. Not all entities have the same concerns for the fair and equal rights of women in their nations, but with the world watching, pressure is put on these nations lacking proper adherence to human rights policies for women in these countries. Africa, often known for its volatile circumstances and harsh treatment of women is the focal point of this research paper in helping to create a best practices policy suggestion for African women to have a right to food, land, and fair employment. It is important to note that the injustices such as the Ugandan minister’s justification of raping girls as a “natural act” should no longer be accepted by the world and how girls and women are treated (Mark, 2014). The focus will aim to examine the agricultural population of the Africa Union (AU) due to the severe imbalance in women’s rights that are seen in these regions, as well as the importance of agriculture in the economic condition of the people and nations of the AU. With extensive research and examination of various methods and policies that are implemented and practiced throughout the world, the following paper will provide a feasible guideline on a potential plan of action to incorporate in regions throughout Africa where women have continued to suffer inhumanities by their fellow citizens. One could gain insight into the challenges and movements that are gaining popularity and attention in Africa through examination of the various actions that groups like the United Nations are taking on a global scale to improve women’s right in Africa and the world.
Concepts and Definitions
Human Rights
In beginning the discussion on the equal rights of the African women as pertains to her ability to obtain food, land and decent employment, it is important to understand the distinct concepts and definitions of what that means. First one must acknowledge the importance of the women’s rights issues to be directly associated with the same protocols that are designed to uphold human rights laws around the world. According to the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR, 2006:15), “The Human Rights Based Approach (HRBA) to programming as a conceptual framework for the process of human development that is normatively based on international human rights standards and operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights.” A normative framework involving laws that are to be implemented and obliged by ruling states are used to express human rights standards that are intended to respect and protect the citizens. Additionally, these frameworks are designed to reflect the obligations of the governing states to become ‘duty bearers’ of the individuals and groups residing under their jurisdiction. HRBA explicitly focuses on discrimination and marginalization in the development process, and uncovers the underlying and root causes of major development challenges and unfulfilled rights. It develops the capacities of rights holders to claim their rights, and duty bearers to fulfil their obligations. It moves development from isolated benevolent initiatives to a system of rights and obligations established by international law. (United Nations Evaluation Group, 2014:22)
Gender Equality
A key problem in the discussion of African women’s lives involves the lack of gender equality creating limitations of freedom and liberties that should be a natural human right for all. Gender equality refers to the equal rights, responsibilities, and opportunities that should be available for both men and women, without exclusion of one or the other based on gender. When expressing the need for gender equality, equality is not necessarily something that means women must somehow become more like men and vice versa, but that one’s rights, responsibilities, and opportunities should match regardless of whether one is male or female. The interests and needs of both sexes should be equal priority while recognizing the diversity of various groups of men and women. “Gender equality is not a women’s issue but should concern and fully engage both men and women. Equality between women and men is seen both as a human rights issue and as a precondition for, and indicator of, sustainable people-centered development.” (OSAGI, 2007: 1)
One of the most important events to take place around the world for women’s rights occurred in 1979 at the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). This event was pivotal in terms of the worldwide attention that it brought to the issue on gender inequality that was seen around the world against girls and women. The CEDAW notes that “discrimination against women violates the principles of equality of rights and respect for human dignity, is an obstacle to the participation of women, on equal terms with men, in the political, social, economic and cultural life of their countries, hampers the growth of the prosperity of society and the family and makes more difficult the full development of the potentialities of women in the service of their countries and of humanity” (UN Women, n.d.). Implicit in this is a conceptualization of gender equality as an equality of rights, a lack of discrimination and participation of women, on equal terms with men, in the political, social, economic and cultural realms. Gender equality is regarded as the key principle underlying the protection of women’s rights and encompasses non-discrimination as well as adoption of special measures (FAO, 2007). To further expand on the expectations that are developed regarding gender equality one must consider the outline by Fredman and Goldblatt (2015)- “to redress disadvantage; to counter stigma, prejudice, humiliation and violence; to transform social and institutional structures; and to facilitate participation, both in the form of political participation and social inclusion.”
Rural Women
A principal point for rural women is emphasized as well by the CEDAW. In Article 14 of the CEDAW there is particular emphasis on the conditions of rural women and states, inter alia that “States Parties shall take into account the particular problems faced by rural women and the significant roles which rural women play in the economic survival of their families and shall take all appropriate measures to ensure the application of the provisions of the present Convention to women in rural areas” (UN Women, n.d.). In particular, States Parties shall ensure the following for women’s rights,
(a) To participate in the elaboration and implementation of development planning at all levels; (b) To have access to adequate health care facilities, including information, counselling and services in family planning; (c) To benefit directly from social security programs; (d) To obtain all types of training and education, formal and non-formal, including that relating to functional literacy, as well as, inter alia, the benefit of all community and extension services, in order to increase their technical proficiency;(e) To organize self-help groups and co-operatives in order to obtain equal access to economic opportunities through employment or self-employment;(f) To participate in all community activities; (g) To have access to agricultural credit and loans, marketing facilities, appropriate technology and equal treatment in land and agrarian reform as well as in land resettlement schemes; (h) To enjoy adequate living conditions, particularly in relation to housing, sanitation, electricity and water supply, transport and communications (UN Women, n.d.).
A fairly large portion of the women of Africa live in rural places where agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for many families.
African Women in Agriculture
Now that some basic understanding on the international expectations that were introduced by the CEDAW is explained it is time to apply them to the lives of African women. A tremendous part of life in Africa for many women revolves around agriculture. It is important to understand the nature of what agricultural life involves for these women, and why it is significant to the conversation of gender equality and women’s rights. Most of the world is cognizant of the extreme hunger and poverty that exist in Africa, and many developed nations are working towards helping Africa move towards a solution to this problem. It is unacceptable to live in a world where so many countries have an abundance of food, yet nations in Africa remain starved, with children dying as a result of malnutrition.
In a report titled “Agriculture in Africa: Transformation and Outlook” by NEPAD (2013) the following statement was made regarding the importance of agriculture in Africa,
Agriculture forms a significant portion of the economies of all African countries, as a sector it can therefore contribute towards major continental priorities, such as eradicating poverty and hunger, boosting intra-Africa trade and investments, rapid industrialization and economic diversification, sustainable resource and environmental management, and creating jobs, human security and shared prosperity (pg.3).
Evidently agriculture may be the answer to transform the destitute conditions of the African continent if properly organized and planned out. It is vital that women are not neglected in this movement towards agricultural growth that is capable of eradicating so many of the devastating circumstances that have been seen in the nature rich landscape of the African continent.
One must understand that women play a substantial role in the agricultural arena of the AU, making up seventy percent of the workforce (NEPAD, 2013). Not only are women heavily involved and responsible for the food production and work involved in agriculture, they also make up fifty percent of the 1.2 billion people in the African continent (Population Reference Bureau, 2015, p.11). Looking at the obvious, one could go so far as saying that the future of the AU is dependent on the empowerment and equal rights of the female population to emerge into a fruitful region versus one of the poorest continents on the planet. According to Habtezion (2012), studies show that if women are given access to land, finances, and technology in the same manner as men, “agricultural yields could increase by 20-30 percent; agricultural output could rise by 2.5-4 percent; and malnourishment in the population could decrease by 12-17 percent” (pg.7). This is a significant point to make because it shows that women have skills and capabilities that may improve present conditions drastically. Unfortunately, gender-bias and inequality have perpetually minimized female competencies, which have resulted in less than ideal conditions both socially and economically in this part of the world. The discussion on changing policies to enforce gender equality go beyond just one’s opinion of the matter and are clearly much more critical to the well-being of our planet and its citizens, half of whom are female.
In addition to realizing how important women are to the agricultural economy of Africa, there is also the emergence of “agricultural innovations that must be established in order for the nations of the AU to compete in the global bio-economy” (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014). A technology that Africa can consider expanding on is the Genetically Modified foods as a viable option to fulfill the demand for the severe food shortages that have continued in the African continent for decades upon decades (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014). Despite the controversies surrounding the GM technologies, the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) supports the technology as a feasible option to end malnutrition and hunger throughout the world and work alongside the African Development Bank to help create a productive agricultural economy for Africa. The President of the African Development Bank, Donald Kaberuka stated, “African countries import about $25 billion worth of food each year, but only about $1 billion worth of such imports come from intra-African trade. We must implement innovative solutions that can not only bolster agricultural performance, but also promote agri-food trade and food security” (International Food Policy Research Institute, 2014).
As new technologies emerge in the AU, it is more important than ever that policies be established that ensure women have a voice in the changes that are occurring. If rules and regulations continue to embrace old ways of thinking, which minimize the importance and contribution made by girls and women, then a large portion of the benefits possible to the AU will be hindered. It is common sense that if half the population of a country is restricted from education and commerce, then the production of goods and services is also cut in half. It is vital for the future of Africa’s global position, as well as basic human needs of the people of Africa that gender inequality be abolished as much as realistically possible. Complete obliteration of gender inequality is not necessarily going to be reached immediately, but strides must be taken to significantly remove many of the cruel and unjust practices that occur in so many of the African nations. To create a pragmatic plan of action for implementation of policies addressing gender equality, the examination of humanitarian policies presently in place that could be revisited for the issues of the African women rights problems is discussed. It is fair to say efforts in establishing guidelines that nations throughout the world are to follow have been developed; however, focused implementation remains obsolete.
Global Treatise and Policies
In the attempt to bring awareness and change to the issues of inequality facing many girls and women throughout the globe, treatise and policies have been created to transform the injustices faced by the female sex. The following section will discuss the actions taken by entities like the United Nations to help progress the movement for women’s rights. Although numerous policies have been developed for many decades, while new ones continue to be created, there is a high degree of negligence in honoring these policies that is something to make note of when examining these select treatise most valuable to assisting the rural agricultural women of Africa.
International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
The International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights was a policy “adopted and opened for signature, ratification and accession by General Assembly resolution 2200A (XXI) in December of 1966, with entry into force in January 1976, in accordance with article 27” (OHCHR, 2016). This policy is in accordance with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights that establishes that all people should be allowed the freedom to “enjoy his economic, social and cultural rights, as well as his civil and political rights,” without fear (OHCHR, 2016). Under this policy there are thirty one articles that address in detail the nuances of the policy that should be observed as international law. If this policy was sincerely observed and imposed on the nations of Africa, a positive shift in the lives of agricultural women is likely to ensue.
UN Millennium Goals
The United Nations Millennium Goals were divided into eight particular goals that the world is expected to honor and work towards to improve the ailing human conditions of poverty, disease, inequality and more. As pertains specifically to the lives of African women of agriculture, the UN Millennium Goal on the impact religion has on the empowerment of women is critical to consider. Often time, religion is used against women and girls to advance their position, which is a major hindrance in observation of any human rights policies intended to increase gender equality. The three major religions of this region- African Indigenous, Islam, and Christianity are used to examine the four Development Goals intended to “raise (1) percentage of school-aged girls in school, (2) female adult literacy rates, (3) female share of non-agri-cultural employment, and (4) female representation in government” (Njoh, & Akiwumi, 2012). The importance of religious practice is a part of the cultural lives of African people, and emphasis on these four development goals in the context of religion would help aid in the progression of women’s rights.
World Food Summit Plan of Action
This event helped establish the Voluntary Guidelines to support the gradual realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security, which is of key importance for the African agricultural women in their roles of establishing food security for their nations. As a large portion of agricultural work and food safety issues are overlooked by the female population, the importance of these voluntary guidelines will best support the women of Africa in the agricultural endeavors. According to the FAO website (2005), “The objective of the Voluntary Guidelines is to provide practical guidance to States in their implementation of the progressive realization of the right to adequate food in the context of national food security, in order to achieve the goals of the World Food Summit Plan of Action. They provide an additional instrument to combat hunger and poverty and to accelerate attainment of the Millennium Development Goals.”
Fourth World Conference for Women
In 1995 a conference was held in Beijing, China a “Platform for Action” was designed in an attempt for the Action for Equality, Development and Peace plan. Nearly all aspects of the plan created during the conference could be used to address the challenges facing African women of agriculture. However, the parts of the plan most suitable to the agricultural issues of the African women can be found in the sections on Women and the Economy, Women in Power and Decision Making, and Women and the Environment (UN Women, 1995). With a look into each of these sections of the Platform for Action, some realistic and workable solutions and guidelines are provided that would greatly benefit the level of equality that currently is not present for the female agricultural population.
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
“The United Nations General Assembly in Paris on 10 December 1948 General Assembly resolution 217 A as a common standard of achievements for all peoples and all nations sets out, for the first time, that fundamental human rights be universally protected” (United Nations, 1948). Specifically Articles 2 and 17 are most valuable in the goal to increase women’s rights in the agricultural African region. With Article 17 setting the necessary guidelines that “(1) Everyone has the right to own property alone as well as in association with others.(2) No one shall be arbitrarily deprived of his property” (UN, 1948).
The Habitat Agenda
The Habitat Agenda, adopted at the second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements, committed governments to providing legal security of tenure and equal access to land for all people, including women and those living in poverty, while undertaking legislative and administrative reforms to give women full and equal access to economic resources, including the right to inheritance and to ownership of land and other property (FAO, 2007; OHCHR & UN Women, 2013):
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These are only some policies that have been established by the UN and it’s partnering humanitarian organizations to help mitigate the challenges facing inequality for women, along with a violation of their human rights. One could see these policies as solid foundations for focusing on the rights of women in Africa. In the next section the policies and their value to the women of Africa are explored from a conceptual basis prior to establishing a suggestion of best practice policies that may help guide the African continent towards success in the fight against gender inequality.
Policies to Consider
Since 1995 after the Fourth World Conference on Women, greater focus on policy changes began to occur as the world united in acknowledging that women’s rights are human rights and neglecting this reality is not acceptable. Fortunately one of the eight goals of the Millennium Development Goals aims to improve gender equality and women’s rights around the world (United Nations Population Fund, 2006). There are many countries where adoption of new strategies have been enforced the governments that have worked well in increasing women’s equality and rights. Looking at some of the nations who have made great strides is important in considering what type of procedure could take place in the AU to help uplift the female populations of these African countries. The following section will explore policies implemented by other countries with similar conditions who have managed to produce positive changes in this very important human rights issue.
Indonesia
Indonesia is a country that has struggled with women’s rights due to the patriarchal society, along with religious practices that perpetuate old ideologies of the woman’s role in life and the family unit. Many similarities exist in the cultural and traditional attachments to associating with women as secondary to men in the Indonesian country just like that of countries in the AU. The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women has been a key part in reinforcing the Indonesian Constitution, which has guaranteed comprehensive rights for women (MOWECP, 2014).
In order to be sensitive to the religious and cultural practices of the Indonesian people, careful consideration in changing legislation has been accommodated in the best ways possible. A problem in Indonesia that can also been seen in Africa is the difficult marital laws that prohibit women from equal opportunity and treatment. In 2012, the Indonesian “Constitutional Court ruled that the marriage laws should be adapted to protect the rights of children born out of wedlock,” which not only was important to the condition of these children, but also was an important step in providing a sense of protection in women’s rights (MOWECP, 2014). Often times women who become pregnant out of wedlock are severely tormented and punished by society, which is a serious human rights issue.
The second valuable decision made by the Indonesian government with the help of the MOWECP is to incorporate gender budgeting. Gender budgeting will allow the various sectors of the nation to appropriately distribute resources with consideration of both men and women. The UN Women division highlights the importance of Gender-responsive Budgeting (GRB) as a significant aspect of improving the position of women in “creating enabling policy frameworks, build capacity and strengthen monitoring mechanisms to support accountability to women” (UN Women, 2012).
The modification of marital law and gender budgeting are both suggestions that could be made for countries in the AU, as policies are considered in creating gender equality and reinforcement of women’s rights.
Guatemala
The second country that has made some strides in the advancement of women’s rights is Guatemala. Guatemala is a country that faces similar challenges to Africa in terms of women’s rights. It is a country that has had severe restriction on the land ownership, which favors men. Maria Estella Gonzales Gocon, an Actionaid Project Manager for the Women’s Land Right Project Guatemala, confirmed while on her visit to COP 17 in Durban to join the Southern African Rural Women’s Assembly that the two countries “face many of the same problems in how land belongs to and is controlled by men, despite the how deeply the system affects women yet favors men” (Actionaid, n.d.).
Aside from the land ownership problems placing women at a disadvantage in Guatemala, there are also a large number of indigenous women in the country of Guatemala. Handling issues with the indigenous groups can be an additional challenge for policy makers and governments due to the extreme difference in lifestyle and cultural practices among indigenous groups. Regardless, women in these groups should also be protected and empowered no differently than any other women. “The Joint Programme on Strengthening the Institutional Environment for the Advancement of Women in Guatemala (the Programme) has strengthened the Office for the Defense of Indigenous Women (DEMI) and the Presidential Secretariat for Women (SEPREM), at the national and local level through promotion of multi-sectoral and inter-agency cooperation, as well as activities with different levels of government and civil society” (UN Women, 2013).
A problem that was seen in Guatemala was the lack of implementation of programs and policies suggested by DEMI and SEPREM, which needed to be addressed in order for any significant change to occur in the women’s rights and equality movement. In order to tackle this issue “increased monitoring by both agencies were required at both the central and local levels, with activities in seven departments and municipalities” (UN Women, 2013). Four areas were the focal point of the plan in Guatemala which incorporated 1) A "plan for Equal Opportunities (PEO) and the Coordinated Agenda for Indigenous Women; 2) Eradication of violence, discrimination and racism against women; 3) Economic empowerment for women; and 4) The social and political participation of women" (UN Women, 2013). Many small but significant signs of improvement are reported as a result of this shift in increased focus on the policy implementation by both DEMI and SEPREM in Guatemala.
Bangladesh
Agricultural initiatives involving women in Bangladesh is being re-established and reinforced using Women’s Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI). “The WEAI is a new survey-based index that uses individual-level data collected from primary male and female respondents within the same households, and is similar in construction to the Alkire and Foster (2011) group of multidimensional poverty indices” (Sraboni, E., Malapit, H.J., Quisumbing, A.R.& Ahmed, A.U., 2014). Originally, the WEAI was created as a tool to monitor and evaluate the US Government’s Feed the Future programs, it soon became a tool used also by “policymakers, development organizations, and academics seeking to inform efforts to increase women’s empowerment” (Sraboni et al., 2014).
Data taken from the Bangladesh Integrated Household Survey in 2012 was used to better understand how women were empowered through agriculture (Sraboni et al., 2014). Three measures were used to measure the food security of rural Bangladesh that included- caloric availability per capita, dietary diversity of the households, and the BMI of the adults in the home (Sraboni et al., 2014). Through further detailed measurement requirements the empowerment of women in agriculture was measured. With nearly 43% of the agricultural efforts taken on by women, it was crucial to allow the female population to be valued and hold a legitimate position in the activities associated with agriculture (Sraboni et al., 2014). Fortunately over time there have been some hopeful changes in women’s rights in Bangladesh that has been established by these measurements involving the WEAI (Sraboni et al., 2014).
Again, the conditions of the female population of Bangladesh resembles the conditions of the African women, making Bangladesh’s approach a possible factor in creating a measurement system to ensure that policies are effective as Africa aims to empower its women.
Significance of Policies
After exploring the subject of women’s rights and equality as it pertains to Africa, along with the various organizations and divisions that are working to improve gender equality throughout the world, it is possible to provide a framework of what may be a viable solution in taking steps toward a better future for girls and women in the African Union. If the goal is to see African women gain access to having the right to food, land, and equal employment, then some changes are obviously necessary which is the purpose of this research paper. Suggesting various policies designed to address women’s rights on a global scale will be helpful to factor into a framework that may be customized to the cultural needs of the African people. While creating this plan it is not the goal to disrupt the positive traditional values of the African people while reinforcing a new mindset through legislation and programs to ensure women are treated fairly and given equal opportunities to sustain themselves and their families.
A large portion of the female African population lives in rural areas. In these parts, agriculture is the primary source of livelihood, making it a priority to implement the rules of the established policies to allow women the same freedoms and access to land and employment in the agricultural sector. So many women put in the laborious effort both at home and on the farm, but are not seeing any payment in return. In an article in the International Journal of Biology, researchers claim that many constraints exist to make rural women farmers lag behind economically, apart from lacking agricultural information; of these constraints the biggest ones are the lack of personal land and credit (Fabiyi, & Akande, 2015). One could imagine what impact could be had for the position of these women if the policies created to uphold human rights were properly exercised by the local and state governing agencies of the nations in the African Union to see that women make gains in the agriculture sphere.
In an attempt to prepare and educate these women, there could be a considerable impact on Africa’s sustainable development as these women begin to take their positions as valuable and rewarding jobs. The empowerment of women will surely benefit the economic conditions of the nations in the AU as women begin to engage in commerce related to sustainable development projects. These are a few of the possibilities that can be assumed by taking a new and confirmed approach toward the numerous policies that exist to ensure that women’s rights are honored as human rights around the world.
Current Data on African Women
After reviewing the various aspects of policies and what is possible for the African agricultural women, it is important to examine empirical data to obtain accurate information on what is occurring in the rural parts of the African continent. Prior to declaring a suggestion of best practices policies, one must be aware of the facts that exist to understand where help is needed. It is crucial to be aware of the actual figures on the differences in the status of women versus men in terms of their land ownership, access to food, and finally their ability to find fair employment.
Land
Despite the bulk of labor that women contribute to agricultural work in addition to the numerous other duties that they tend to, they are less likely than the men to own the land. Lack of land ownership results in added challenges for so many of these women when they cannot get access to credit to invest in their productivity. Land ownership usually falls into the male relatives’ possession and is rarely passed down to the woman. The option to purchase land is also a challenge for women due to the limited credit or assets available to most women in Africa. In order to fully understand the reality of the inequality of land ownership it is important to examine reliable “evidence through micro-level, individual level statistics on gendered bundles of rights over land in Africa” (Doss, Kovarik, Peterman, Quisumbing, & van den Bold, 2013).
The following information was obtained from an article titled, “Gender Inequalities in Ownership and Control of Land in Africa: Myths Versus Reality,” which was a discussion paper for the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI). The report provides information from 16 studies done throughout 8 countries with sample sizes ranging in 355 to 3.5 million households (Doss et al., 2013). Immediately one can see that the lack of documentation creates a slight dilemma in reporting data with complete accuracy. “For example, 8 percent of women and 15 percent of men are reported as landowners in Ghana, but this figure falls to 1 percent and 2 percent, respectively, when the analysis is limited to those with their name on a formal ownership document” (Doss et al. 2011; Doss et al., 2013).
The study included a large number of households in various parts of Africa that measured land ownership by female (owned), male, and joint ownership. Based on the findings, Rwanda is the country with the largest documented and undocumented land ownership by women, which includes sole and joint ownership (Doss et al., 2013). The results showed 14 percent of women and 20 percent of men had ownership (including joint ownership); however, the result of sole land ownership are drastically different, with 17 percent female owned and 43 percent male owned (Doss et al., 2013). This trend in the gap between male and female land ownership continue to be seen in nearly all the African countries. One of the biggest problems in collecting accurate data on land ownership information because only 8 out of 53 African countries was available (Doss et al., 2013). Therefore, there is not sufficient proof in empirical evidence to deliver detailed information on each of the African countries based on the IFPRI report.
Food
As seems to be the case across the board throughout Africa, women do not fare well in any area of life compared to men. Access to food and nutrition are also an aspect of life where women struggle severely in comparison to men. Of the 925 million hungry people in the world, 26 percent reside on the African continent (FAO, 2011). According to the FAO (2011), “The food price crisis and the ensuing economic crisis reduced the purchasing power of large segments of the population in many developing countries, severely curtailing their access to food and thus undermining their food security.” In a report by the World Bank, there is confirmation that women are key figures in the food security of the household because of their role in obtaining, preparing, and feeding the family as a central part of their duties.
A study was done in collaboration with Johns Hopkins University and the Aga Khan Health Services and the University of Nairobi, Kenya to do five interviews and two focus groups with women in Kwale District, Kenya (Hyder, Maman, Nyoni, Khasiani, Teoh, Premji, & Sohani, 2005). The study was done to collect empirical data to better understand how the women in that region perceived food security, health, and gender inequality in their region of the world (Hyder et. al, 2005). There were four specific questions that were used to organize the framework of the results from the study. These included:
How do gender inequities affect women's food securing activities? 2) How do gender inequities affect the health of women and their families? 3) What is the relationship between food securing activities and health from women's perspective? 4) How are some women able to manage demands that are placed on them by food securing activities and maintain a healthy household in the context of these gender inequities (Hyder et. al, 2005)?
In reference to question one, the results collected show that women are spending their entire portion of the day, from early morning until late at night tending to their duties of house chores, collecting water, fire wood, tending to the children, along with farm work; the majority of their time was spent on food preparation, whereas the men would spend time on resting, business activities, and farming (Hyder et. al, 2005). The second question provided information on the unequal food distribution that was seen among the study participants. Nearly all the women claimed they fed the male head of the household first, along with male sons, and finally the women ate with the remaining female children last (Hyder et. al, 2005). Woman also were responsible for managing their children’s health, but were not allowed to make the decision on what should be done if the child is sick without asking her husband or elder family member. The third question addressing the relationship between food securing activities with their health were evident from the women’s experience (Hyder et. al, 2005).. Many of the woman claimed their nutrition suffered and were not able to produce enough breastmilk because they worked so hard and ate very little (Hyder et. al, 2005). The women also mention that the work they do for income does not match the great burden it can be on their health and the children’s health whose meals are missed when the mother is busy with her workload (Hyder et. al, 2005). The fourth question asking the woman how they manage the duties in context of these gender inequities showed a promising outlook for some of these women who found some liberation and sense of freedom with their husbands. A large number of them would participate in women’s groups that become a great help to them through “benefitting both the individual women and their families by providing benefits such as income or free farm products for home consumption” (Hyder et. al, 2005).
Employment
In 2011 the ratio of employment-to-population for men was 69.2 percent and only 39.2 percent for women, confirming any suspicion of gender inequality in the employment conditions of women in Africa (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). What’s interesting about the data found in the report by the African Development Bank was that the regions where there was a high number of employment of males would also have a higher number of employment for females along with increased gender equity (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). Despite the vulnerable labor market, women would greatly benefit from expanding their employment opportunities when given the chance (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.).
The report finds that a rise in female employment has continued to occur since 1991, which also indicated an expansion of gender equality (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). “Between 1991 and 2010, agriculture’s share of total employment for women declined from 53% to 48%as well as from 48% to 44% for men. During the same period, services’ share in total employment for women rose from 37% to 44% as well as from 35% to 38% for men” (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). These figures were present despite the large amount of work done by both genders in the agricultural sector. Many claim there is a feminization of agriculture that is unfolding due to the unprecedented number of female farm workers that exist (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.).
Less than one third of women received a regular wage or salaried employment in Africa. Other gaps in employment were evident when seeing that only two percent of women owned their own businesses, whereas a large majority of men worked on their “own accounts” (businesses) (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). Meanwhile, the work done by women was rigorous and time consuming but lacking fair wages (Anyanwu, & Augustine, n.d.). Jobs that were not secured in wage or salary were termed “vulnerable jobs,” which 70 percent of women were employed in.
Plan of Action
After exploring the subject of women’s rights and equality as it pertains to Africa, along with the various organizations and divisions that are working to improve gender equality throughout the world, it is possible to provide a framework of what may be a viable solution in taking steps toward a better future for girls and women in the African Union. Despite the large quantity of policies that have been developed over the decades to create guidelines in the treatment and rights of women to match that of men, there has been tremendous failure in application of these policies. In terms of the rural agricultural women of Africa, similar reinforcements must be applied much more aggressively in taking steps towards gender equality. These changes are suggested to be placed in educational reform, female leadership programs, and changes in marital law against child brides.
Educational Reform
In the reformation of women’s rights one of the fundamental steps for the nations in Africa to take on is educational reform that legally ensures that both boys and girls in Africa have access to primary and secondary schooling. Not only must there be legislation that must be passed throughout the AU requiring education for all of Africa’s youth, but a removal of barriers in access to education must also be considered. For example, according to the Unicef website, many girls drop out or are asked to stay home to either care for family members or just simply too poor to attend school (Unicef, n.d.). The list of issues that arise as obstacles interfering with the opportunity to attend school are present for both sexes, but more often seen to happen to the female children in the families.
Working in partnership with the governments of the AU and organization, such as Unicef to create a policy to provide free primary and secondary education to the youth will be a transformational change and confirmation of establishing an empowering future for gender equality. Fortunately since the World Education Forum in 2000, there has been an increase in the number of children attending primary school (Unicef, n.d.). For example, from 2007-2008 the number of children enrolled in school went from 46 million to 68 million, while increasing net enrollment in school up to 85 percent throughout the AU (Unicef, n.d.). These are the types of reform that the governments in the AU, along with outside partnership with humanitarian organization and corporations that will surely establish the importance of education in a country where poverty and gender inequality limit the future of the children. One would hope that future generations of women in the African continent will find themselves empowered through their education to establish security by way of allowing them to improve their chances to obtain food, land, and equal employment.
Female Leadership
While the work begins in reforming the educational opportunities and policies in the AU, there is other work to be done to improve the condition of women both young and old. Education for these groups will come through female leadership positions that will guide women towards awareness of their rights as human beings. Women in Africa need to be made aware that they are responsible for providing 80 percent of the agricultural production, which makes them leaders in agriculture. Shifting the attention of women from submissive mothers, wives, and daughters to embrace their role in the global economy with their contribution in agriculture would begin to alter the mindset of the female population in the AU.
The African Union declared 2015 as the “Year of Women’s Empowerment,” which is a big step towards building the female leadership that African girls and women need as they come to see themselves in a new light (Otas, 2015). Despite the tremendous gains African women have made in recent decades, they are still marginalized as a group in their ability to secure positions of power, educational opportunity, job opportunities, and ownership of land (Otas, 2015). According to an article by Belinda Otas the policies are in place to acknowledge and discuss the problems facing gender inequality; however, implementation of these policies is the problem (Otas, 2015). A possible suggestion for the AU is to incorporate tools like the WEAI that are managed and run by experienced women who can then interact with fellow women in rural agricultural parts to teach them the importance of their position and how valuable it is for their nation. Using a tool like the WEAI will provide beneficial through enforcing a plan of action that must be implemented because it is being analyzed, but also through showing women that they can be in charge in important positions. Establishing the value of girls and women in the fast growing economy of the AU is key to empowering this disenfranchised portion of the population.
Marriage Laws
Another area that the AU falls short on is the lack of fair marital laws in the various nations of this region. Without hardly any consideration, girls often as child brides are married off without any say so. Once a girl becomes a wife, the complete submission to the husband and then family is what is enforced by society, especially in the rural regions. It is imperative that one of the common practices in rural Africa involving the marriage of girls who are under the age of 18, and very often only a child, should be eradicated and made illegal by the government. A strict policy should be enforced to make this practice illegal throughout the African Union.
An organization called Girls Not Brides is one of the groups working in partnership with other global organizations working to end child marriage. According to the website for Girls Not Brides nearly 40 percent of girls throughout sub-Saharan Africa are married before they reach 18. The website also displays the statistics by Unicef for 2016, which shows that 12 percent of girls are married by the age of 15. Whatever the age, forced marriage is not acceptable and is responsible for being one of the biggest hindrances to equal rights for women in Africa. Once a girl is given up by marriage to her husband, she is entirely his property with almost no right to make important decision or obtain ownership of property.
A great step was taken in November 2015 in Lusaka, Zambia when numerous members of the Girls Not Brides organization attended the African Girl’s Summit on child marriage in Africa along with so many organizations committed to removing the practice of child marriage from Africa (Girls Not Brides, 2015). The groups urged government officials to ensure full participation of civil society on the removal of the common and disempowering practice of child marriage in the African nations (Girls Not Brides, 2015). Events like the African Girl’s Summit must continue to be organized to increase awareness and bring attention and pressure to the policy makers and the citizens of the nations within the African continent to realize the goal to see gender equality allowing women access to human rights in food, land, and employment.
Conclusion
The biggest lesson to learn in concluding the research on policies to establish for the equality of women in Africa is one of actual regulation. After reviewing the numerous policies and legislation that have been established in the past, the reinforcement of these laws are something that has not been followed through by those responsible for upholding such laws. Therefore, moving forward there is an urgent need for accountability in the structure of the government and humanitarian agencies to ensure that the people of Africa are made aware of their rights, especially women, and that those rights are no longer disregarded. It is crucial to keep this in mind as the fundamental basis for why the concept of women’s rights is integral to honoring human rights around the world. To exclude or limit the possibilities available to an individual based on her gender is unacceptable and a complete violation of human rights. Instead, implementation of policies and plans must be taken more seriously than ever to shift the attitudes of the people in Africa and around the world. Some extremely hopeful changes are taking place through the African nations as the government leaders are working in partnership with humanitarian organization to create a promising future for the women of Africa. As stated by Mark (2014), “In a continent where customs often carry as much weight as constitutional laws, particularly in remote regions, roughly three-quarters of women believe they should have the same rights as men rather than being subject to traditional law” (para.5). It is time the voices of these women are heard and tangible change is seen for the sake of future generations. The great African leader Nelson Mandela once said, “To deny people human rights is to challenge their very humanity,” which is something the people of Africa must take to heart in this fight for women’s rights.
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