Introduction
The First World War or the Great War was a remarkable event in the history of the humanity. It influenced and shaped our modern world to an extent like none else, and the reflections of today’s development traces its route back to the decisions taken during and post-World War I. No one had any idea about the huge armies that would be involved, the amount of ammunition that will be expended, and how many people would die. However, the role of Canada in the war is noteworthy, considering the fact that the nation decided to stand by the Britain’s side during the war with the only aim of opposing aggression. It neither fought for anything for itself, nor did it receive any rewards of the war. In this paper, we will discuss about the role of Canada and US in the Great War, the history of the border regions along the Canada-US boundary during the war and how it impacted their relations. It will examine the development of cross-border economies and the cultures in these regions before the war and explores how the war, specially the neutrality of US, affected these relationships. It also delves into the area of local reactions to the actions taken to better monitor the cross-border movement of the enemies, undesirable immigrant groups and the Military Service Act, 1917. In a nutshell, this paper provides an insight into how Canadians and the Americans interpreted the war, nationalism and the Canada-US relationships.
History of the US-Canadian Border until 1914
The treaty of Paris, signed in 1783, ended a bitter war between the British and the United States, but failed to bring any long-term relief to North America. The tensions continued to remain high between US and the northern part of North America for the three decades to come. At this stage, United States stood too divided to stand another fight against the British. The search for peace and stability led George Washington to send Chief Justice John Jay as a diplomat to England in 1794. A treaty signed by Jay in 1794, known as Jay’s Treaty, consolidated US’s control over the Northwest boundary with the remaining colonies of Britain, which later became Canada.
The American Revolution had divided the people of the region into two groups – Patriots and Loyalists. At the outset of the revolution, the revolutionaries hoped for the support of the French Canadians. When Canada was invaded during the revolution, thousands joined America and formed regiments that fought during the war. However, most remained neutral, while some joined the British. After the war, Canada became a refuge for those loyalists who either wanted to leave US, or were compelled by the Patriots to do so. The border gradually entered and affected the lives of people in different ways, depending on their region, heritage and proximity to the border. People living in United States and Canada blamed outsiders and unseen governments for the hardships of the conflicts between them and the war, rather than each other, with whom they shared meaningful cultural, economic and social relationships.
Prior to the World War, Canada had frequently been subjected to the threats of annexation and the possible use of military to settle the border disputes. Canada, being perceived as a territory of the British in North America, was thought to pose a threat to the existing territorial integrity of the United States. However, these views changed after the Treaty of Washington was signed in 1871, and Canada was no more a threat to America. The border between the America and Canada was referred to as the longest undefended border in the world. In short, the relations between the two nations were amicable.
However, these attitudes varied as the time progressed. The border was politicized and bureaucratized in the years to come. This led to the materialization of the images and the sentiments that the people associate with the border. Until the nineteenth century, the North Americans were what historian Bruno Ramirez has called Societies in motion. The decision to cross the border was solely dependent on the economic conditions of a family, and there was no one to prevent them from doing so. After that point, the border, which was unprotected until now, began to gain a political entity of its own through the immigration and customs laws.
The most serious breach in the relations of the two nations was when the American forces invaded the then-British North America and the counter invasions from the British Canadian forces. It led to the demilitarization of the border in order to maintain peace.
The history of the Canadian-US border represents a new but a progressive academic field. The period after the completion of the Canada-US Free Trade Agreement in 1988 and the attacks of September 11, 2001 has attracted much attention to the issues related to the permeability of the US-Canadian border. In the initial investigations, the US journalists and the officials erroneously pointed to the Canadian border as the entry point for the hijackers and the boundary became the subject of much debate. The argument that the Canadian border acts as an easy point for terrorists to reach the US, turned the image of the border into something distinctly negative.
The Role of United States and Canada in the Great War
The first and the most important causes of the war can be traced back to the days of Napoleon, for whom war was the main feature of its strategy and his policies aimed at getting as much forces on his side as possible. The second set of causes finds its place in the economic development of the states in Europe towards the nineteenth century, the greed of personal gains and in the national projects of enhancement. A major influence also came from the controlling class, to which war was very normal, or even desirable. The national spirit, which was sprouting throughout the Europe, also played a major role.
In the period between 1899 and 1914, the world’s great economic powers drew in and assembled in two groups: the Allies (consisting of United Kingdom, Russia and France) and the Central Powers (made up of Germany and Austria-Hungary). United States, Italy and Japan ended up joining the Allies later on, while the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria sided with the Central Powers.
At the outbreak of the war, United States maintained a stand of neutrality and non-intervention. It tried to avoid the conflict and broker peace. However, in 1915, when a German U-boat sank a British liner leading to the death of more than a hundred Americans, America demanded an end to the attacks on the passenger ships. In the early 1917, Germany resumed the unrestricted attacks, leading to the sinking of seven American merchant ships. Following this incidence, the then-President Woodrow Wilson called for a war on Germany. The United States never formally became a member of the Allies, but went on to be called as a self-styled associated power.
On the other hand, Canada chose to not enter the war in 1914. London guided the foreign affairs of the country. Therefore, when the ultimatum of Britain to Germany to withdraw its army from Belgium expired, the whole British Empire, including Canada, entered into war. Canada entered the war as a dominion of the British Empire. When the Britain declared the war in 1914, Canada as part of the dominions was automatically at war.
The war united the Canadians initially. Much of Canada’s war efforts were led by the volunteers. A patriotic fund was created to collect the money to support the families of the soldiers. Military Hospitals came up for the care of the wounded. Everybody tried to do their bit for the war effort.
The war, in its initial stages, hurt the economy gravely, leading to unemployment. The military spending increased, equaling the entire government expenditure. The Finance Ministry was against raising the taxes. The refusal of Britain to lend to Canada made them turn to US for help. This marked the beginning of what went on to become an internationally recognized and applauded international relationship.
It was borrowing that was the prime financer of the Canada’s war efforts, leading to a large increase in the national debt. However, Canada managed its burden of this debt by huge exports of timber, wheat and munitions. Farming also began to experience a shortage, since many farmers had joined the army. The factories also faced shutdown because of the recession created as a result of the war. The other challenges that stood in front of the country were inflation and shortage of manpower, fuel and food, and munitions. All these factors led to the formation of a production industry that would go on to manufacture artillery ammunition. Compelled on reorganization by the British administration, a new British agency named Imperial Munitions Board was formed in Canada. Eventually, British stopped buying from Canada and again, it led the whole industry to turn face towards US.
But it was this war that helped Canada achieve the status of an independent nation. For a nation of only about eight million people, the war efforts of Canada were remarkable and helped Canada create its own separate signature on the Peace Treaty. By the time the war ended, it was no longer viewed as a colony of England.
World War I and its aftermath
With the outbreak of the war, everything changed. Canada was forced to support to Britain and to dispatch a Canadian expeditionary force. Canada, now, had a stronger voice in the policy making process, however, the British government had nothing to offer.
In 1916, the Canadian government realized that it is unfair to expect the dominions to continue making sacrifices in the war without being given participation in the British Councils. Therefore, the Canadian Prime Minister summoned an Imperial War Cabinet and Conference and discussed the conduct of the war. As a result, in 1917, Resolution IX was passed that mandated that any readjustment of the relations after a war should be fully based on the recognition of the dominions as autonomous nations of an Imperial Commonwealth, and that they should be given adequate power and voice in the foreign policy-making process.
In this capacity, Canada signed the Treaty of Versailles and went on to become a member of the League of Nations. This way, the country earned the international recognition and status, which was won by its soldiers on the battlefield and the statesmen at the conference tables.
Impact of the war on the Canadian-American Relations
The influence of the war on the foreign policy of United States is particularly relevant to understand the modern-day relations of US and Canada. With the decline of Britain as the world’s leading financial and commercial center, new investment, trade and commerce opportunities opened up in Canada for United States. The war also brought to light the contribution of Canada to the industrial defense production of the Allies, and America began to view it as an autonomous dominion, rather than semiautonomous colony.
During the early stages of the war, Canada became a notable example of how to maintain a practical stance of neutrality. It was this period when the American government adopted specific financial measures to improve trade relations with Canada. It not only provided new opportunities to the American businessmen, but also made it clear that it saw the expansion of Canadian defense industry important to the security of the United States. The American governments provided financial assistance to Canada for its defense production industries in 1915, 1916 and 1917. It also exempted Canada from various policies imposing coals on steel and coal exports, which indirectly were impacting the production in Canada. These measures marked the beginning of the policy of exceptionalism, which became the hallmark of the relations between the two nations during and after the war.
The war also altered the course of military relations between United States and Canada. During the war, Canada’s forces moved through America to Europe, and so did American forces through Canada. American aviators were trained in Canada and the two nations shared their intelligence data. Termination of the war in 1918 brought an end to these efforts at forging a continental defense system. It is also believed that the status of Canada as a semi-autonomous British dominion prevented the negotiation of further bilateral agreements.
The First World War marked a turning point in the relations of America with Canada – a transitional period from an era of indifference to one of formal alliance beginning with the signing of the Ogdensburg Agreement in 1940. The Wilson administration recognized the Canadian aspirations for greater autonomy in relation to Britain and, wherever possible, accommodated its neighbor.
At times though, Canadian intentions were not very well-received. Nevertheless, Canada proved to be diplomatically useful to the United States on the whole. At several occasions, the Canadian government during and after the Versailles peace negotiations, acted as a mediator between United States and Britain. More importantly, Canadian officials, seeking greater autonomy from Britain, enthusiastically supported the Wilson’s vision based on collective security and the economic open door. Postwar economic statistics provide further evidence of Canada’s receptiveness to Wilson’s open-door policies.
In conclusion, it was during the First World War that American economic and military power superseded that of Great Britain. This shift was reflected primarily in America’s new economic relationship with Canada and to a lesser extent in its military relations. About twenty years later, Canada’s cooperation during the war was seen by American national security planners as a precedent to the highly successful 1941 Hyde Park defense production agreement.
On the Canadian side, these developments in military and economic relations with America reversed the long-standing anti-American sentiment in Canada arising from the Alaska boundary dispute and the rejection of reciprocity in 1911. Canadian cooperation stemmed largely from a calculation of its own national interest, which converged with US economic and national security interests. This pattern would become the defining characteristic of the American-Canadian relationship in the twentieth century.
Modern day relations between US and Canada
United States and Canada are the world’s largest trading partners, share the world’s largest undefended border and inter-operate with each other within the realm of defense. However, there have been recent disputes between the two nations, primarily caused by repeated trade disputes, Canadian concern for the oil exports, environmental issues, illegal immigration and the threats of terrorism.
The foreign policies of both the nations have been closely associated and aligned with each other since the war. However, Canada has had its disagreements with the American government on various issues like Vietnam War, the Iraq war, Missile Defense, the status of Cuba and the war on terrorism. There is also a serious ongoing debate between the two concerning if the Northwest Passage is in the international waters or under Canadian jurisdiction.
The two countries share cultural and social ties with each other, primarily because of English being their first language. However, they also share some common historical ties. There have been sincere efforts from both the nations for solidifying their cultural uniqueness, in order to discourage the international perception that both Canada and America are identical.
Canada is America’s favorite foreign nation. However, Canada’s fears of being dominated by its neighbor still stand. However, the two countries have increasingly merged since the signing of Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA).
American – Canadian economic relations
Canadian economic relations with America were one of the worst problems of its era. The sentiment of Anti-Americanism was at its high, fueled by the dislike of the Vietnam War. The energy problems that followed the crisis caused by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries were a violent irritant.
Before the World War, Canada had two great trading partners in Britain and US. Exports to Britain from Canada exceeded the imports, but the situation was reverse with the US. After the war, Canada’s British market was never completely revived.
In the recent years, Japan has become the second trading partner to Canada. The US began to dominate the trading scene of Canada like never before. Canadian commercial and trade policy has been drawn up in the direction of freer trade.
Conclusion
Since the beginning of the times, the people of United States and Canada have shared the same culture, society and language. However, because of the colonization by the British empire in the continent, America got free owing to the American Revolution, leaving major part of the continent still with the British, which later went on to become Canada.
Since then, the relations of US and Canada had been on a see-saw with each other. Initially, it was only the governments that realized the borders between the nations. People were too closely attached to each other to be divided by the borders. There was a free-flow of the population from either side of the border to the other side without any restrictions. The border between Canada and US has become the longest undefended, non-militarized border in the world. However, the situations changed with time. The governing agencies politicized the border and it gained an identity of its own.
While America became a free nation, Canada still existed as a dominion of Britain, and thus as an obligation, had to enter the World War supporting the British. On the other hand, US had maintained a stance of neutrality until 1917. The war efforts of Canada and the sacrifices that it made got it an international recognition. It was no more a dominion of the British and joined League of Nations as an independent nation.
Post war, the perception of America also changed for Canada. Following this, there has been an increase in the cordiality between the economic, military, social and cultural relations between the two nations. Despite being two different nations, they share the same culture, maintain peace at the border undefended and consult each other with their intelligence data. Canada is America’s favorite foreign nation, while Canada, to certain extent, still realms under the fear of being overwhelmed by America.
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