Introduction
Adolescence is a time when a person’s physical, psychological, social and cognitive growth is of great importance. During this time, the person is not a child and they are not yet an adult and some of the choices made at this time in regards to their health, lifestyle, and attitudes can be continued into adulthood. People in this stage are greatly influenced both academically and socially by social interactions. Some relationships established in academic institutions with peers and authority figures are said to be major socializing agents, especially for middle school students. Even though school is considered a positive environment where these students form relationships, learn, and have meaningful interactions it is also an environment where the students are prone to peer victimization (Wormington, Anderson, Tomlinson, & Brown, 2013). Such influences have great influence on adolescents’ subsequent behavior. During this time, the students are most likely to experiment with alcohol and other drugs. Different factors like environmental or social factors make them more susceptible to these experiments. The experimentation may expose the individuals to delinquent behaviors and other long-term effects. This is a subject that has received a lot of attention from scholars with most looking to find out the relationship between substance use and influencing factors of social, environmental, and individual nature. The studies try to discover whether having positive or negative interactions can influence the individuals in the use or abstinence of drugs and alcohol.
The following paper will look at the factors influencing middle school students to experiment with drugs and continue with the substance abuse. The paper will look at subjects of different economic and geographic circumstances and to what extent these factors influence their decisions in substance use and abuse.
Literature Review
Research by Wormington et al. (2015) focuses on finding the influence of negative interactions, specifically peer victimization on the use of alcohol and other drugs by students in middle school. Peer victimization can be relational and physical in form. It is generally referred to as bullying. Relational victimization is where an individual is a victim of behaviors such as the spread of rumors of bad friendships all with the intention of destroying social relationships. Physical victimization includes violent actions like hitting and verbal threats. People who have been victims of such actions are said to be prone to substance abuse. This has led to the development of intervention programs that are designed for students who have been victimized in any way. The paper also addressed the issue of social support. As people start middle school, support from family members is of great importance. However, these students may look for support from other figures like teachers and peers. All these figures influence the beliefs and values developed by students in this stage. The effect peer victimization has on an individual is said to differ with the social support and their gender. Students with a better support system are less likely to indulge in alcohol and drug abuse. On the other hand, people of different genders interpret peer victimization differently and this factor is considered in most researches.
In another research, Evans-Whipp et al. (2004) examine the relationship between drug policies implemented in schools and the use of alcohol and drugs by middle school students. Such policies are said to set the norms and guidelines that shape students’ behaviors. Schools are continually being recognized as environments where students’ attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors are shaped. In such an environment, students get to interact with different people who have different views on substance use and misuse.
The restrictions imposed by the drug policies is of different levels in different schools. For instance, a number of schools prohibit the use of tobacco for students while in other schools they prohibit this act for all people in the school, including teachers and other staff members. In other institutions, the restriction is in terms of time and location. The consequences for violating these policies is also a factor in their effects on students. The most common format is to inform school administrators and parents when someone is in violation of the policies the first time. Other consequences like out-of-school suspension, detention, or in-school suspension are said to impact students’ attitudes on drug use. Being strict should not be the only goal for the enforcers of these policies, it is also important to include remediation activities. Most enforcers focus more on punishment and less on remediation. The research found that there were different components of effective or ineffective policies. In one school, the respondents claimed that an effective policy should be comprehensive in terms of the people being addressed, the location, and the times. Such policies are likely to influence students’ actions even on weekends when they are not on the school grounds. From another group of respondents, they found that an effective policy had certain components (Evans-Whipp et al., 2004). The policies should not have loopholes that students can manipulate. For instance, a tobacco policy can restrict students from smoking on school grounds, from smoking near the school, from leaving school during the day and should integrate smoking prevention in the education plan. The study also found that the enforcement of the policies determines their effectiveness. For instance, a strong enforcement is likely to be followed and respected by students other than those policies that do not address issues clearly and leave some loopholes that students can manipulate.
A different research by Griffin and Botvin (2010) examines the different factors that influence middle school students to use drugs. Social factors are said to be the most influential factors in the experimentation and continued use of drugs. These include the attitudes and expectations about substance use presented by people in their lives like parents, siblings, and friends. Other influences are how substance abuse is portrayed by people the students look up to in television shows and movies. Also, advertisements with messages addressing alcohol and substance abuse can influence their attitudes and perceptions on the subject. Developmental factors are also influential in a student’s decision at this stage. Adolescence is a period where the individuals try new behaviors and lifestyle decisions. It is usually a way to gain independence from their parents and to be accepted by their age mates. As such, it is common for them to be rebellious against authority and that could lead to engaging in alcohol and other drugs. By understanding these factors, it becomes easier for researchers and authority figures in the adolescents’ lives to find the best strategies to keep them away from drugs and alcohol. It is not enough to teach them to say no to these attractive experimentations, it is also important to help them maintain their stand even when they are different from those of their peers.
There are a number of factors that put individuals at risk of substance use and abuse. Different researches have focused on issues of physical, sexual abuse and neglect, and how adolescents who have undergone these acts are at risk of turning to drugs (Whitesell, Bachand, Peel, & Brown, 2013). Physical abuse is defined as actions that harm an individual, mostly a child and the act is not accidental. A number of researchers have reported the significant relationship between sexual and physical abuse and substance abuse for adolescents. Victims of abuse are said to be four times likely to engage in alcohol and substance abuse (Whitesell et al., 2013). Such actions are linked to posttraumatic stress disorder, which gets victims to adopt new ways to cope with the stress like with drugs.
Research shows that boys are likely to be physically abused while girls are likely to be sexually abused. Any form of abuse including emotional abuse is likely to drive adolescents to try out drugs. Even though emotional abuse is not linked a lot to drug use, it is still considered a contributing factor (Whitesell et al., 2013). Emotional abuse is often coupled with issues of violence and witnessing violence. Neglect is another factor researched on as a contributing factor. Neglect is when a caregiver does not give the child living necessities like health care, food, clothing, and protection. For people in their adolescence, neglect is likely to have more damaging effects since at this time they are undergoing a lot of developmental changes. Researchers are unable to study the effects of this factor since it is often coupled with other dynamics such as domestic violence and poor economic status. Both males and females respond differently to stress even at this age. Most females choose to avoid the stressful situation and are more attentive to their emotions, which is a coping mechanism that puts them at risk of depression that can cause substance abuse. Males, on the other hand, are more confrontational.
Participants of this study are children in middle school between the ages of 11 and 13 years old. The study will select students from different schools with a total of 65 students from five schools. This is to ensure that the participants are from different geographic and economic levels to meet the research’s objectives. The selection is also supposed to ensure that the results of the study can be generalized to a high percentage of the population in middle school. Since the participants of this study are minors, their parents and guardians will be informed through emails and letters and they will be required to give consent for their child’s participation. The researchers will find replacements for the children whose consent was denied. The research will involve having the students fill questionnaires during their school hours.
Results
The research designed to be used in this study is quasi-experiment since the participants for this study cannot be randomly assigned. Going into the study, a hypothesis will be developed on which the study will look to prove right or wrong. For instance, we can use the hypothesis that middle school students from low economic backgrounds and who live in poor neighborhoods are more likely to engage in drug abuse in comparison to those from middle class or high-income backgrounds and neighborhoods. The goal of the study is to find out whether one variable affects the other and to what extent. In this case, we will find out whether being from different geographic and economic background affects a middle school student’s decision to experiment or engage in drug use. As such, the statistical test used will check the influence of the independent variable on the dependent variable. The form of testing implemented is intended to ensure that the research objectives are met. The likelihood of experimenting or engaging in drug use will be measured courtesy of the questions in the questionnaires the respondents are asked to fill out. Most questions will be close-ended to make it easy to analyze the answers selected by the participants. The open-ended questions will be to capture the participants’ thoughts and opinions on the subject.
Discussion
The study will find that there is, in fact, a relationship between the economic background of students, their geographic locations, and their likelihood to use drugs. The participants of the study are from poor neighborhoods, middle-class suburbs, and wealthy communities. Their homes and neighborhoods obviously show their economic levels. Being in these neighborhoods, the students are exposed to different things. For instance, a student from a poor neighborhood is more likely to encounter drugs at an earlier age than one from a middle-class background. Also, from such a neighborhood, the students are prone to issues like drug affiliations and having caregivers that are drug users themselves. Neighborhoods with gang affiliations are also likely to have more deviant peer groups that will have a social influence on the students. The appeal of bad behavior is promoted by these gang members, and adolescents who are at the stage of finding their independence are likely to get attracted to such delinquent behaviors, including drug use. All this could be in the attempt to belong. The findings of the study will prove the previously stated hypothesis to be true.
Additionally, it is possible for selection to affect the internal validity of the study. Since the researchers had to explain their research goals to the school administrators when seeking their participation, it was likely that the students used and brought forward for participation were from extreme ends of the economic levels (Michael, n.d.). That selection is likely to jeopardize the internal validity. For instance, if the administrators selected students from extremely poor backgrounds who they already suspect to be affiliated with gangs or delinquent peer groups, then the selection could affect the validity of the study.
External validity addresses how the results of the study can be generalized to different people regardless of the time or setting (Michael, n.d.). Population validity is a factor that is likely to affect the external validity of this research. The study selected 65 students from 5 different schools. The result was having participants that are predominantly white and with few students being from minority groups. As such, the population of these subjects is not a clear representation of the students attending middle school in the country. Therefore, the results obtained from this study may not be valid enough to draw conclusions that can be used on a high percentage of middle school students. Reactions from experimental arrangements are also likely to affect external validity (Michael, n.d.). This is where the participants act differently since they know they are participating in a research. This could affect the study greatly, especially since the data collection method is questionnaires meaning the participants have time to think about their response and can give dishonest answers.
There are different factors that influence people’s decisions. For adolescents, they are likely to be highly affected by these factors since they are at a vulnerable time of their lives. Economic background is a factor that has an influence on their self-esteem since it dictates the groups they associate with and their style. It is, therefore, understandable how the same factor can influence their decisions and perceptions on drug and alcohol use. The study shows that there is a relationship between drug use by middle school students and their economic background. However, it is clear that economic background is difficult to isolate and research on this factor alone since it is coupled with other influential factors like gang affiliations and abuse. As such, one can recommend that future researches on this subject attempt to separate these factors and focus the study on economic levels alone, if possible. In addition, future studies should select a population of participants that represents most students in middle school in the country. The studies should ensure all minority groups are adequately represented making the results easy and valid to generalize.
References
Evans-Whipp, T., Beyers, J. M., Lloyd, S., Lafazia, A. N., Toumbourou, J. W., Arthur, M. W., & Catalano, R. F. (2004). A Review of School Drug Policies and Their Impact on Youth Substance Use. Health promotion international, 19(2), 227-234. Retrieved from http://heapro.oxfordjournals.org/content/19/2/227.long
Griffin, K. W. & Botvin, G. J. (2010). Evidence-Based Interventions for Preventing Substance Use Disorders in Adolescents. Child and adolescent psychiatric clinics of North America, 19(3), 505-526. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2916744/
Michael, R. S. (n.d.). Threats to Internal & External Validity [PDF document]. Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~educy520/sec5982/week_9/520in_ex_validity.pdf
Whitesell, M., Bachand, A., Peel, J., & Brown, M. (2013). Familial, Social, and Individual Factors Contributing to Risk for Adolescent Substance Use. Journal of Addiction, vol. 2013, Article ID 579310, 9 pages. doi:10.1155/2013/5793101, 1-9. Retrieved from http://www.hindawi.com/journals/jad/2013/579310/
Wormington, S. V., Anderson, K. G., Tomlinson, K. L., & Brown, S. A. (2013). Alcohol and Other Drug Use in Middle School: The Interplay of Gender, Peer Victimization, and Supportive Social Relationships. Journal of Early Adolescence, 33(5), 610-634. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4539963/
