CROSS-CULTURAL INTELLIGENCE
Cross-Cultural Intelligence
Introduction
Communication is of immense importance in the organization and the day to day activities of mankind (Karnaukhova & Polyanskaya, 2015; Teng et al. 2014). It includes verbal and non-verbal communications. In the multiethnic, multiracial and multicultural world of today, interracial (cross-cultural) communication is common and paramount. However, research has shown that there are various barriers to this form of communication. Interracial communication simply implies communication between people of different cultures. Communication barriers do not only exist in the interracial context but also interpersonal communication (communication between people of the same culture) barrier also occurs. This essay takes a look at cross-cultural intelligence and explores the various barriers to intercultural communication as well as the various issues around it based on articles authored by Goodman & Schieman, (2004) and Howard, (2011).
Cross Cultural Communication Barriers
There are various barriers to intercultural communication (Raddawi, 2015). However, the communication barriers considered here include stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination and ethnocentrism. Culture as defined by Hasler et al. (2014) from the ethnographic viewpoint is the code or system of meanings which is shared historically among a group of people. The shared traditions, beliefs, values and norms result to cultural codes which include verbal and non-verbal forms of communication.
Stereotype
The stereotype is a form of inductive reasoning. It generalizes a belief, attributes and attitudes of a group as belonging to any individual associated with such group. Stereotype deduces that if the characteristic is exhibited by a group, then each member of the group must possess it. It is obviously a wrong way to reason and can lead to the wrong conclusion. Usually, the stereotype is not based on facts but encompass personal conviction and inaccuracy. Of course, stereotype is a barrier to intercultural relationship and communication. It also affects the behavior of a person towards an individual or a group. Moreover, the stereotype does not only attribute negative causes to a group, but it can also attribute positive qualities to a group and individuals in the group when they do not even possess those qualities.
Prejudice
Prejudice is an attitudinal behavior or disposition. Just like stereotype, prejudice can ascribe positive or negative qualities to a group and people in that group when they do not even possess them. Usually, such characteristic is attributed to every member of the group by focusing on the characteristics supposedly shared by the most member of the group. Prejudice is of frequently known as irrational bias and just like stereotype; it is based on one's experience of a group. As it can be expected, prejudice hampers relationship with a group, and it is a major barrier to effective communication and breeds discrimination.
Discrimination
Discrimination and prejudice are close kin. While discrimination is a behavior, prejudice is an attitude and being a behavior; discrimination can lead to prejudice. Discrimination involves treating different people unequally with respect to their membership in a given group. Discrimination is not always in the form of verbal behavior; it may also be in non-verbal behavior and of course, it is not always negative, it can also be positive. Discrimination could be individual or institutional.
Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism observes a culture as superior to others and in fact uses it as a standard or benchmark for measuring other cultures. In fact, such reasoning favors cultures close to the supposed standard over others and discards others as being substandard. Ethnocentric individuals often try to help the supposed lesser cultures to get up to his standard. No matter how wonderful ethnocentrism may sound, it is a major barrier to effective communication because it creates an unequal relationship between people from the supposed lesser and superior cultures. A good example of ethnocentrism is the relationship and communication between the whites and American Indians in the United States. This ethnocentrism has cost the American Indians a great deal as many of them has imbibed the way of life of the whites and has lost their cultural heritage ("Barriers to Intercultural Communication", 2010).
Critical Evaluation
Prejudice, stereotype, discrimination and ethnocentrism can be observed in virtually every culture. Howard (2012) studied the intercultural combination between homosexuals and heterosexuals at the Historically Black College/University in the United States. The study identified a sense of prejudice and discrimination that exist among the two categories or class of people. It identified that homosexuals including lesbians, gays and bisexuals experienced discrimination especially when they are ousted.
Howard (2012) painted a very clear picture of the situation to describe the experience of the group. The class consisted of 11 African American graduate students (male and female inclusive), and it was a study on Afrocentric Methods and Theory. Sheena was very open about her sexual orientation with classmates, and she was a lesbian. As the class went on, one of the students called Jane asked a question that let the cat out of the dog. She asked, “With Afrocentricity being sexist and heterosexist, how can Sheena as a Black, lesbian, female study Afrocentricity?” (Howard, 2012. Jane may not necessarily have asked the question for prejudiced, stereotyped, ethnocentric or discriminatory reasons. However, Sheena perceived it as thought possessing all these characteristics. In fact, this question was a big shock on Sheena. She felt abused, exposed and attacked. She felt that Jane had launched a direct attack due to her sexual orientation and that everyone else in the classroom, including her advisor, had felt the same way. The sense of separation could not go away even when Jane tried to explain herself afterward and this explains the place of cross-cultural intelligence and importance of communication.
According to Goodman & Schieman (2014), cultural intelligence is about perceptions. It involves how you view yourself, how others view you and how you view others. Cultural IQ can be enhanced through cultural self-awareness, cross-cultural understanding and cultural intelligence. Further, it is imperative to consider that cross-cultural communication is inevitable in multinational organizations. Maznevski (2008) rightly identified that the best way to deal with the issue of cross-cultural communication is by creating a map of the cultures you are working with and evaluate how they are different from and similar to each other. A proper understanding of each culture is an inevitable asset that would enhance effective communication across cultures (Teng et al., 2014).
Analysis and Discussion
Howard (2012) painted a clear picture of existing barriers in communication between different cultures namely homosexuals and heterosexuals. Communication within each culture is unique, and the use of verbal and non-verbal tools may pose some communication barriers across cultures. I found that the article was more descriptive of the breakdowns that can take place in communication across cultures. For instance, a total breakdown occurred in the classroom and Jane failed to communicate properly to Sheena (the lesbian). Consequently, Sheena felt the prejudice and discrimination. Obviously, repeated prejudice and/or discrimination similar to an experience or situation can cause the reemergence of a past emotion and experience. Howard (2012) explained that victim’s reaction is a process immediately after the situation reflected an emotion schema being lived and performed and connected to her individual social and/or historical experiences. Unlikely, Howard (2012) does not talk about stereotypes. Stereotypic situation occurs when a characteristic of a group is generalized to individuals in the group. Moreover, he reflects ethnocentrism to an extent. Jane appears to deem his culture (the heterosexist) as more superior (in the context discussed) to the homosexuals.
On the other hand, Goodman & Schieman (2004) painted various scenarios that can arise as a result of a breakdown in cross-cultural communication. It focuses on the primary solutions for most of the issues that can occur due to such communication barriers. The basic aim of this article is to increase cultural intelligence and enhance collaboration skills. It asserts that cultural intelligence is related to emotional intelligence, but it actually starts where emotional intelligence stops. However, the article does not really paint the picture of prejudice and discrimination in action.
Evidently, the issue of discrimination presented by Howard (2012) is not exclusive to sexists, but it occurs in various cultural contexts. In fact, such discrimination, prejudice and communication barriers can be experienced in every situation that requires communication across different cultures. Thus, it presents a good case study that can be generalized to evaluate other cultural settings more effectively. Also, Goodman & Schieman (2004) posited avenues that can be effectively used in understanding and leveraging the differing perspectives across cultures. These arguments squeeze in various cultural settings and could also be effectively generalized.
Breakdown in communication across culture is becoming more common nowadays because of the increasing globalization of the world (Kluver, n.d.). Lots of companies are going multinational and therefore, require integration between different cultural settings. Employees need to mingle with other employees and people from various cultural backgrounds. This makes it critical to study and understands what differs between different cultures and how to actually communicate effectively across those cultures. The example painted above about Sheena describes the event clearly and of course, she carried the sense of separation and discrimination until her adviser made it clear that her culture does not really undermine their relationship.
Conclusion
Cross-cultural intelligence is a great asset in the globalized world of today. Intercultural communication breakdown is common today because of lack of understanding of various cultures. These lead to prejudice, stereotype, discrimination and ethnocentrism. These communication flaws are not unique to any one set of culture but manifests in every cross-cultural interaction. Thus, it is extremely imperative to understand the language codes (including verbal and non-verbal communications) of various cultures in order to interact easily with people from various cultural settings and backgrounds. Of course, every culture is unique and effective interaction, and relationship can only be achieved with the understanding that no culture is superior to the other. This understanding is the clear antidote to ethnocentrism as well as prejudice, discrimination and the likes.
References
Barriers to Intercultural Communication. (2010). SIM UNIVERSITY.
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Howard, S. (2012). Intercultural (Mis) Communication: Why Would You “Out” Me in Class? Sexuality & Culture, 16(2), 118-133.
Karnaukhova, N., & Polyanskaya, E. (2015). Communication and reputation as essentials for the positioning of an organization. AI & Soc.
Kluver, R. Globalization, Informatization, and Intercultural Communication. Ac-journal.org. Retrieved 26 March 2016, from http://ac-journal.org/journal/vol3/Iss3/spec1/kluver.htm
Maznevski, M. (2008). How Cultural Intelligence Can Improve Performance. Imd.org. Retrieved 26 March 2016, from http://www.imd.org/research/challenges/TC081-08.cfm
Raddawi, R. (2015). Intercultural communication with Arabs. Springer Science+Business Media.
Teng, L., Ye, N., Yu, Y., & Wu, X. (2014). Effects of culturally verbal and visual congruency/incongruency across cultures in a competitive advertising context. Journal of Business Research, 67(3), 288-294.
