Introduction
The case for sex against gender as bipolar concepts is controversial. If anything, "gender" has arisen as an increasingly adopted concept in social sciences as part of feminist postulations about "inherent" differences between women's femininity and men's masculinity, particularly as to emphasize "gender" as a basis for social and cultural distinction and "sex" as a biological difference between women and men (Haig, 2004). This distinction appears, however, to be more than a linguistic one. Further, in being adopted, both concepts appear to raise calls for re-examination of initial usages – and, for that matter, applications – of both concepts as to whether each has been used appropriately in order to signify a specific state of affairs or not. This paper aims, hence, to explore basic distinctions, if any, between sex and gender as conceptually independent variables.
The study of gender development answer questions concerning gender-role attitudes and structures. This is important for us to understand issues related to the role of gender in shaping individuals, relationships and social institutions.
Sex & Gender: Conceptual Understandings
Historically, sex and gender are differentiated based on physiological and sociocultural attributions respectively. For example, in an early establishment of sex vs. gender as decidedly distinct concepts, Unger (1979) proposes gender is used for "characteristics and traits socioculturally considered appropriate to males and females," whereas "sex" "implies biological mechanisms". Moreover, such distinction has become, if anything, widely adopted and remains in use currently.
However, sex and gender remain comparatively unstable concepts subject to further debate and examination. Hird (2000) posits, for example, that sex is a social construct equally as gender. Citing feminism as one major narrative of sex / gender dichotomy, Hird( 2000) calls for a reexamining how viable constructing sex biologically as a basis for differentiation between sexes and, significantly, of whether gender multiplicity is a working dichotomy independent of sex as a social construct.
Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation by Bussey and Bandura (1999) integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theory, gender conceptions are constructed from experiences. Social Learning theory by Albert Bandura (1977), regards gender identity and behaviors are learned from the environment through observational learning. The likelihood of imitation of the behaviors also is affected by reinforcement and punishment. Cognitive perspectives on gender development assume that gender identity develops when children identify to themselves a similar gender group (Martin & Ruble, 2004). A study by Fagot (1978) observed two year olds at home with their parents. The finding in that study confirms that boys and girls at a young age are reinforced and punished based on gender appropriation behavior. This supports that gender role behavior is learned from the environment of a child.
Gender development as it occurs in groups as well as in individual children, according to Maccoby (2000) must be viewed in an ethological perspective, psychobiological perspective and more traditional perspectives (Maccoby, 2000).
Sex & Gender: Sociocultural Dimensions
The growing body on sex and gender is emphasizing notable distinctions, albeit inconclusive, between both concepts.. For current purposes, differences are explored in areas of linguistic performance, professional mentoring, public co-education and intimate relationships.
Linguistically, in a study exploring differences between males and females in Detroit, Michigan based on data on sound changes in progress (Northern Cities Chain Shift), findings show gender exercises a broad range of effects on linguistic variables and, more significantly, reported distinctions between participant males and females could not be limited to a conventional male / female dichotomy (Eckert, 1989). This finding indicates, if anything, sociocultural ascriptions assigned to gender in shaping an individual's linguistic behavior, independently from her / his biological sex.
In a professional mentoring context, particularly in a Certified Public accounting practice (a historically male-dominated profession), a study shows biological sex not accounting for mentoring preferences and/or patterns but gender role as "significantly" correlated to having a mentor and mentor functions (Scandura & Ragins, 1993).
In public coeducation, a study by Pajares & Valiante (2001) suggested that a feminine gender orientation is stronger in the area of writing, while a masculine orientation is advantageous when escorted by a female. This study’s aim was to determine if gender-stereotypic beliefs rather than gender influence the writing motivation and achievement of middle school students (Pajares & Valiante, 2001). In a more recent setting, a preschool in Sweden is attempting to blur gender lines as they avoid calling their toddlers gender specific pronouns (Tagliabue, 2012)
In intimate relations context, a case study shows gender role orientation factors in as a significant variable defining intimate / romantic relationship patterns (Bailey, Hendrick & Hendrick, 1987). Notably, sex-stereotyped couples appear to have difficulties in romantic relationships because of reported discrepancies in love and sexual attitudes (Bailey, et al 1987).
Gender: Roles, Identities and Schemas
This growing significance of gender as an independent variable from sex is confirmed across different human activities and functions, notably in leadership, healthcare, sports, criminal justice and field research, as to ascribe characteristic social roles, identities and schemas to individuals.
In a leadership context, women are proven to emerge as leaders more compared to men, although gender role appears to have a stronger effect (in men's favor) on emergent leadership (Kent & Moss, 1994). Therefore, gender orientation appears to exercise stronger influence on defining a woman's / man's leadership role. In a healthcare context, given growing significance of women as healthcare service consumers, a growing body of research is calling for more gender-oriented approach to service catering in order to counter historical male bias in clinical and medical practice (Pinn, 2003). Specifically, women and men are shown to meet social expectations of sex-oriented perceptions of specific sport activities as masculine or feminine. In a field research context, females – in confirmation to broader social expectations – are shown to encounter less initial suspicion in conducting field research as opposed to men, except in male-dominated contexts (Warren & Rasmussen, 1977).
Conclusion
Historically, sex and gender have been confused concepts. Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development which started in the mid 1950s was critiqued because it has adopted the male form of life as a norm. The issue with Kohlberg’s moral development theory was that it was constructed through man’s eyes therefore it was considered partial and showed no gender equality. Nowadays, gender issues are at the heart of moral theory (Kakkori & Huttunen, n.d.) However, a growing body of literature confirms gender as an independent. There are, however, counter arguments against sex / gender dichotomy, emphasizing sex as an equally socially construct variable. Indeed, as opposed to a conventional conception of gender as correlated to sex, gender has come to be an independent variable, at least in light of recent legal developments recognizing same sex marriage as an equally acceptable form of marriage. This development, combined by incremental changes at deeper level of sexual identity exploration, could alter how gender might come to replace sex as a holistic approach to sexuality.
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