Operant Conditioning
Several factors role-play to shape human and animal behavior. To a great extent, the environment, using rewards and punishment, trains human beings and animals to behave in a particular manner- a training that has since been famously named Operant Conditioning. Operant conditioning, therefore, implies the use of environmental consequences (positive and negative) to enhance to frequency at which a desirable behavior is repeated or to discourage repetition of undesirable behavior (Coon & Mitterer, 2010). First investigated by E. L. Thorndike (1874-1949) and later refined by B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), classical conditioning, as it is also called, forms relationship between the behavior and consequences thereby instilling an operant response. Thorndike in his Law and Effect, asserts that "a behavior followed by pleasant consequences is strengthened while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened" (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). It follows, therefore, punishment and rewards (reinforcements) are apposite in operant conditioning that must always be underscored.
Reinforcement
Reinforcement involves the use of reinforcers- events that according to Kalat (2011) follows behavior to bring about the intended response, in a bid to regulate behavior. In operant conditioning reinforcements are ideally divided into two; positive reinforcements and negative reinforcements. Positive reinforcement connotes the use of a stimulus that strengthens a behavior by increasing the probability of its repetition (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011; Passer & Smith, 2009). In his experiment, Skinner conditioned a rat to press a bar so as to receive a food pellet. The desired behavior in Skinners experiment was pressing the bar while the reward (reinforcer) was food pellets. With time, the rat in the Skinner box learnt that it could only receive a food pellet by pressing the bar (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). This really enhanced the frequency at which the rat was pressing the bar in order to receive food pellets. Another example of positive reinforcement occurs when a child constantly receives praises and/or candies from the teacher for exhibiting a desirable behavior, for instance, writing well. Ultimately, the child will be submitting well-written work, and in essence, the frequency of exhibiting desirable behavior will have been exhibited. It is worth noting that there are two type of positive reinforcers; primary and secondary reinforcers. Primary reinforcers include positive reinforcers that essentially satisfy biological needs, for example, water and food, while secondary reinforcers include reinforcers whose importance are derived from their association with the primary reinforcers. Money is an excellent example of a secondary reinforcer (Passer & Smith, 2009).
As opposed to positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement is the use of an unpleasant stimulus to promote the repetition of a desirable behavior (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011; Passer & Smith, 2009). To investigate negative reinforcement, skinner subjected the rat to an unpleasant electric shock until the rat press the bar. The negative reinforcer in this case was the electric shock while the desirable behavior was pressing the bar. As the rat moved randomly in the Skinner box, it would accidentally press the bar and the shock would cease. The frequency at which the rat was pressing the bar gradually increased as it learnt that pressing the bar served to save it from the shock. Taking bathe to get rid of foul smell is yet another typical example of negative reinforcement. Foul smell is a negative reinforcer to bathing which is a desirable behavior. As Passer & Smith (2009) avert, negative reinforcement serves to help human beings and animals shy away from aversive behavior.
Punishment
Just like reinforcement, punishment is also broadly categorized into positive and negative punishment. In its basic form, punishment refers to the process of using negative or positive stimulus to discourage undesirable behavior. However, punishment is commonly confused with negative reinforcement. In their book, Passer & Smith (2009), in a bid to clear this misconception, aptly assert that negative reinforcement is always intended to strengthen a particular behavioral response while punishment, whether negative or positive, is invariably intended to weaken a given behavioral response.
Positive punishment is the presentation of an unpleasant stimulus prompted by an exhibition of an undesirable behavior. The unpleasant stimulant is intended to reduce the frequency of repetition of the undesirable behavior. For instance, a teacher might look down on a noisy student with disdain as an indication that the teacher is not impressed with such a behavior. In some instances, the teacher might resolve to cane the student (or spank the child). Continuous subjection of the student such unpleasant stimuli gradually reduces the number of times that the student exhibits the undesirable behavior.
Negative punishment, though also intended to hamper the repetition of an undesirable behavior in the future, is the withdrawal of an appetitive stimulus as in response to the exhibition of an undesirable behavior (Plotnik & Kouyoumdjian, 2011). For instance, a child who fails his exams is denied watching television for a week. The same way, a teacher taking away a seat that two students are fighting over. In the two examples, negative punishment, also known as response cost or punishment by removal has been used to promote desirable behavior.
Concisely, it is clear that operant conditioning is built around two principal facets- reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement is categorized into positive and negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is the use of a pleasant stimulus to encourage the recurrence of a desirable behavior while negative reinforcement is the use of an unpleasant stimulus to encourage repetition of a pleasant response. Punishment, just like reinforcement, is categorized into two categories- positive and negative punishment. Positive punishment entails using an unpleasant stimulus to discourage an unpleasant response for being repeated in future. Negative punishment involves withdrawal of a reinforcing stimulus in an effort to regulate behavior.
References
Coon, D. & Mitterer, J. O. (2010). Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior (12th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Canncage Learning.
Kalat, J. W. (2011). Introduction to Psychology (9th ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Canncage Learning.
Passer, M. W., & Smith, R. E. (2009). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behavior (4th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Plotnik, R. & Kouyoumdjian, H. (2011). Introduction to Psychology (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Canncage Learning.
