ABSTRACT
Research agrees that one of the major influences on success in learning fluency in a second language is motivation. It is for this reason that instructors in second language acquisition understand how important it is to grasp accepted theories of the role of motivation in terms of types of motivation, how motivation influences the development of language skills, definitions of motivation, and how to teach effectively for the future success of their students. This paper discusses the major theories of accepted authorities on the influence of motivation on learning a second language and briefly correlates their findings with each other. Motivation is not a static concept, changing over time as the individual matures and experiences different events through his or her life. For this reason, it is vital that teachers step away from previous determinants of successful language acquisition as learning technical skills and recognize that teaching language students how to learn in order to become self-motivating is just as important as memorizing words, grammar, and sentence structure.
Introduction
The influence of motivation and how to enhance the positive aspects of it for learners of second languages has been an issue for researchers and instructors for a long time. Adults and children undertake learning a new language for a variety of reasons, but the first reason is always communication. The desire to increase fluency ranges from increasing employment prospects to becoming adept in social situations to participating in vast numbers of global activities. As one of the most used languages in worldwide communication, English fluency is the goal of many individuals seeking inclusion in international trade and scholastics.
Attention has shifted from the products of fluency and effectiveness in learning a second language to investigations in the processes involved in creating motivation to spend the time, expense, and effort for the end products. While a second language learner strives to participate in interactions with others and promote opportunities for additional exchanges, individual motivation is a variable factor that operates internally. It exerts pressure on the student based on levels of importance of the goal and ease of acquisition. The resulting stress affects the efficiency of teaching methods and the fluidity of the learning. Some students employ the feeling to view the goal of fluency in a second language as a challenge while others are discouraged by their lack of ability. As pointed out by Dörnyei and Skehan (2003), the reason individuals undertake endeavors, the amount of time they are willing to spend in the attempt, and the magnitude of effort expended is based on the impact of motivation on their personality.
Not surprisingly, different theories have been proposed concerning the role motivation plays in second language acquisition and subsequent research has addressed topics such as the identification of reasons for desiring fluency, how to measure the intensity of the motivations, and how to increase the positive effects of drive (Dörnyei, 2001, 2005; Ellis, 2008; Ortega, 2009; Pawlak, 2011). The purpose of the current paper is to provide a focus on the effect of the various types of motivation on learning a second language in order to provide teachers a basis for supplying an optimal learning environment for students. Specifically, information will be presented regarding to what extent motivation affects the process of learning a second language, the types of motivation that affect acquisition, how motivation may be increased, and what effective strategies for self-motivation.
Research was reviewed for the content of this paper regarding types of motivation and variables that act on effectiveness.
Theories and Research
Learning strategies used by instructors of English as a second language are based on activities in and out of the classroom directed toward instilling self-motivation in the students for their enjoyment and success in accomplishing fluency
Types of motivation. Motivation is discussed in terms of directing specific behavior that an individual feels will obtain a goal (Zhao, 2015). Motivation classified as intrinsic acts on goals of overcoming a challenge, satisfying curiosity, gaining or retaining environmental control, achieving recognition, or working in cooperation or in competition with others. According to Kreishan and Al-Dhaimat (2013), intrinsic motivation is when students learn because learning gives them a sense of satisfaction and being intrinsically motivated comes from “individual’s internal desire to achieve goals and enjoyment in performing L2 learning tasks” (p.52). In other words, intrinsic motivation is the way that students react without any external temptation. Research has demonstrated that intrinsic motivation is more effective than extrinsic motivation for second language learning (Ramage, 1990; Wollfolk, 1990); for instance, research by Kreishan & Al-Dhaimat (2013) suggests that promotion of intrinsic motivation in students encourages long-term interest more effectively than extrinsic rewards.
Instrumental motivation is cooperative with intrinsic motivation because the external rewards received allow a person to feel better in terms of self-worth and enjoyment (Jafari, 2013). However, passing an examination or getting a better job represents a reward system that is outside the sphere of intrinsic motivation. Instrumental motivation involves having a specific goal and if the goal is continuous, future efforts at more proficient use of a second language are promoted.
Extrinsic motivation is related to the term locus of control. Extrinsic motivation manifests in external rewards such as money, fame, or medals similar to instrumental motivation but are not in the control of the student. The rewards of extrinsic motivation are a consequence of the efforts of learning a second language, but secondary to immediate fluency. In regards to students, they learn because they believe that classroom’s engagement and participation will develop more desirable outcomes such as a teacher’s praise and other rewards (Kreishan & Al-Dhaimat, 2013). According to Gardener (1985) concerning second language learning, motivation could be characterized as an attitude towards learning, a desire to learn, and as a motivational intensity to positive or negative situations. Therefore, enhancing motivation and creating positive attitudes help to facilitate a non-native speaker to engage and interact in such an affective climate (Shulman, 1986). According to Dörnyei (1994), extrinsic rewards have the ability to lead to intrinsic motivation when they become internalized and self-determining.
The Effect of Motivation on Learning a Second Language. The most widely acknowledged theories on learning language include the social-educational model formulated by Gardner (1985), the achievement motivation theory proposed in the 1950s (McClelland, 1976), the self-determination theory originated by Deci and Ryan (Deci and Flaste, 1996), and the process-oriented model developed by Dörnyei and Ottό (Dörnyei, 2005). All the theories support the idea that attitudes concerning learning a second language influence motivation which in turn promotes the ability of the student to learn the language by interacting with self-confidence, performance anxiety, the belief one can achieve a goal or task, and other variables. Liu & Huang (2011) are among a number of researchers who state that the power of motivation is based in its ability to directly affect these psychological influences. They conducted a study in China simultaneously measuring the impact of anxiety and motivation with 980 first-year university students who were not English majors on learning a second language. Their conclusion was that while anxiety should be alleviated as much as possible in the classroom environment, it has the ability to serve as a motivation toward achievement in order to seek relief from the anxiety of poor performance. In research relating to self-perceptions of ability, Dörnyei & Chan (2013) conducted a study with Chinese students learning Mandarin and English and reached the conclusion that individual characteristics involving the ability to create imagery and sensations were strong motivators of successful language acquisition. Learners skilled in creating a possible future where they are fluent in learning a second language are capable of constructing a powerful possible future that results in long-term quality efforts at achievement; support for the results are supported by Al-Shehri (2009) with 200 Saudi students learning English, a survey of 974 primary school Korean students by Kim (2009), and a study by Kim and Kim (2011) of 495 high school Korean students.
Motivation is not a static influence. As a student progresses toward a long-term goal of expanding fluency, the strength of specific motivational impacts will become stronger and weaker. As a younger learner maturing into an adult student, aspirations change and competing desires may alter the importance of learning a second language; for instance, a child may desire parental approval or good grades while an adult strives for career success or a diverse lifestyle in a different country. An important factor is the type of motivation that is effective for an individual is his or her attitude and these attitudes also change as an individual moves through his or her life. Based on the opinions or beliefs of the student, attitude affects the degree motivation influences behavior. Baker (1988) states that attitudes are learned and not an outcome of genetics, are capable of being contemplated, and have emotions attached to them. He further proposes that attitudes very in the degree of favorability or unfavorability and that while they predispose a person to act in a certain way, the influence is not always particularly strong. Finally, Baker believes attitudes endure as an influence, but they may change in some degree with experience. Gardner (1985) created the integrative motive theory of motivation that addressed the desire of an individual to become a part of the new culture, sometimes to the point of abandoning the native one. Toyoda and Chia (2013) used 819 total Australian students who were learning Chinese or Japanese and concluded that motivation for learning the second language was strongly influenced by whether or not the learner had plans to immerse himself or herself in the culture of the second language. Hernandez (2010) also performed research in the benefits of immersion in a second culture to promote second language fluency and the motivation created for students for social acceptance and effective communication. The result discovered was that even with only one semester of immersion students showed significantly improved language skills, there was a distinct relationship between intrinsic motivation for the students and involvement in the secondary culture, and consistent exposure to the second language within the native environment impacted positively on fluency.
Dörnyei (2005) created a model for motivation with three components: 1) The type of second language practitioner that is ideally adept and is powerfully motivating to bring actual self toward an optimum skill level, 2) a level of skill deemed to be adequate to the point of avoiding negative outcomes but which is not equal to individual goals, and 3) motivation that identifies specific positive situations related to acquiring second language skills.
Another strong influence on motivation in relation to personality is how individual characteristics dictate the influence different types of motivation (Dörnyei, 2006). The researcher contents there is no “language aptitude”, as some believe. Rather, cognitive skills such as working memory and an ability to phonetical code and decode language components allow for ease or difficulty of acquiring second language skills. Dufva and Voeten (1999) conducted a study on 160 Finnish school children and concluded that superior skills in the native language facilitated skill acquisition in a second language; when a student has effectively learned one language, acquisition of another is less difficult due to personal aptitudes in understanding the needed skills.
There is a relationship between transferring skills and motivation to learn a second language. James (2012) assumed that transfer motivation is “a combination of desire, favorable attitudes, and effort” (p. 58). He considered applying and developing independent learning and independent strategies toward learning influential factors for motivation. Students do not have to be motivated by teachers, as the researcher pointed out in his study; however, they can be motivated to learn by the way that they want to use a second language in their personal lives.
Increasing Motivation. Sun (2010) conducted a study to investigate how classroom materials influence motivation for students learning a second language. The researcher found that variables in maintaining student effort included how interested he or she was in the subject being taught, how difficult the subject matter was perceived, how the student felt the content was relevant to his or her existing knowledge, and how useful the student felt the skills would be to his or her life. The findings supported the work by Dörnyei (1994). In addition, the study presented the idea the how the student perceived the level of difficulty was a reliable indicator of how much attention would be given to the subject matter and how relevant the student felt the subject was to his or her life had significant influence on motivation. Authentic material presented in a visual fashion was found to create the most enthusiasm and interest in the student who participated in the research.
However, Ellis and Sinclair (1989) suggested that the primary goal of an instructor in second language teaching is to promote learning in the learner; in other words, effective instructors not only teach the mechanics required for fluency, but instruct in the methods used to do so and offer the rationale for the selection of that particular option; individual differences in students will later determine for that person which learning strategies are preferred. After the introduction of various types of strategies, teachers allow sufficient practice in each to demonstrate the differences and allow learners to select their preferences. Again, when attitudes and goals change over time, the opportunity to change strategies exists by teachers offering other possibilities for future use. After the practice, effective teachers prompt students to evaluate their performances and impressions. Rubin proposes that the most important part of the process is the students sharing their experiences and the learning strategies they developed for optimum learning; many times, they offer fresh or entertaining insights the instructor may have overlooked.
Strategies to Increase Self-Motivation. Instructors seek the most efficient and cost-effective methods of teaching their students a second language. The strategy options are specific actions possible for promoting the process. Distinguishing features that separate strategies of learning as opposed to just teaching activities are that they are goal-directed, using intentionally and with focused effort (Dörnyei, 2006). Cohen (1985) also suggests that the element of choice on the part of the learner impact the strategies employed by the instructor. This complex interplay of student attitudes, personality, aptitudes, and motivations interacting with the teaching options of the instructor have promoted the research on how second language acquisition occurs. It is the individualization of the learning technique that allows the options to be determined to be strategic. The reason there is a discussion of “strategic teaching” versus simply “teaching” is because motivation for learning a second language varies from one person to the next and instructors and even the students themselves have to determine the best way to prompt and maintain interest in the actions associated with successful acquisition of fluency.
Rubin (2001, 2005) proposed that the best way for teachers to promote long-term strategies for learning a second language is to focus on establishing self-motivation. Briefly, the theory is that an individual intent on acquiring the skills associated with second language fluency incorporates intentionally the necessities of learning toward established and changing goals. This involves the student personally accepting the responsibility for planning, solving problems with retentions, implementing learning, evaluation, monitoring, recognizing strengths and weaknesses, and promoting task knowledge. However, Rubin states that what methods a strategic learner uses is not as important as the fact that they actually use them. He or she puts creative thought into improving individualized learning that is effective for specific needs and abilities.
Conclusion.
Research is increasing regarding the relationships between learners of second languages, their motivations, and their successes. Today, it is recognized that motivation plays a critical role in the acquisition of adequate second language skills. Dörnyei’s view of motivation as creating a direction and magnitude of human behavior provides a single concept, yet does not address the complicated contexts of the influence (Dörnyei & Chan, 2013).
Recent research has explored the impact of personality, individual goals, types of motivation, cultural influences, and other significant influences on the role of motivation in learning a second language. As global opportunities continue to expand into even developing countries, learning English is becoming increasingly important for individuals looking for superior employment and for countries looking to improve economies dependent on technology and trade outside their borders. As a language perceived as dominant in every field, English is learned for communication socially and specifically for various fields. Regardless of the aspirations of students learning second languages, it has become clear to the majority of educational facilities that offering quality instruction in English promotes the future success of attending students. However, even the best teaching strategies are ineffective without proper motivation on the part of the learners and instructors look to current studies for answers in how to determine the best way to present the information for English fluency.
As instructors of second language skills, we often encounter situations where it is essential to utilize strategies to support students and improve English proficiency through conventional and unconventional means. This may mean presenting a number of different teaching strategies, allowing students to practice in each, recognize which ones are most effective at this point in time, and allowing discussions to promote insight and excitement. An effective teacher recognizes that instilling self-motivation in students may be as challenging as presenting the teaching material itself; student who are self-motivated will continue to pursue English fluency long after leaving the classroom environment.
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