Uncertainty Reduction Theory (URT), developed by Berger & Calabrese in the year 1975, is an experiential theory that states that individuals always feel the need to reduce uncertainty in initial face to face relationship interactions so as to feel comfortable about developing those relationships further. URT proposes that behavior in early acquaintance communication is clearly understood through the individual’s ability to predict and explain the behaviors of self and partners. URT posits that the early interaction between two strangers is primarily motivated by the goal of uncertainty reduction and this involves making the behavior of oneself and that of others more predictable and also providing explanations for these behaviors (Berger & Calabrese, 1975). The theory is built around the conjecture that when two strangers meet, the primary concern among them is to reduce uncertainty or increase the predictability about their behavior and others during their interaction. Berger and Calabrese (1975) argued that uncertainty is a key aspect in all social interactions and hence the primary concern for most social actors is to reduce the uncertainty in the relationship the share or the feelings of uncertainty that they may have towards each other. In as much as not all uncertainty is negative and the fact that not all interpersonal relationships are motivated by the need of reducing uncertainty, it has been found out that higher levels of uncertainty leads to a reduction in the intimacy levels and decreased levels of liking, self-disclosure and non-verbal warmth. A decrease in uncertainty leads to an increase in liking and intimacy among others. URT thus argues that uncertainty in social interactions is detrimental to relationships and hence the need for its reduction from the early acquaintances.
According to Berger and Calabrese (1975) “the basic assumption of uncertainty reduction is that when two individuals meet for the first time, their primary goal is to reduce uncertainty and increase predictability through communicating with each other, since uncertainty is an uncomfortable state.” When two people meet and interact, they always try to reduce the uncertainty of their behaviors, cognitive thinking and actions so as to sustain the relationship or end it. Communication plays a key role in the uncertainty reduction process and through communication uncertainty is usually reduced. Through communication, strangers get to know more about each other by gaining more knowledge about each other and gaining mutual understanding. Berger and Calabrese identified three phases in which communication occurs during these initial interactions which include: the entry phase whereby behaviors and communication are determined by the set communication rules and norms, the personal phase where the two strangers interact by discussing basic values, personal issues and issues central to them and the exit phase where decisions are made based on the desirability of future interactions. According to Berger and Calabrese (1975), the need to reduce this uncertainty mainly relies on a number of factors. The factors include anticipation for future relationships or interactions (continuation of the relationship), abnormal behavior (deviance) and the gains and costs from the relationship (incentives).
Berger & Calabrese (1975) argue that uncertainty will lead to the behavior of information seeking among strangers as the strangers are motivated to engage in a number of strategies to monitor the behavior of others and know more about each other such as asking questions, observations of communication. As such, Berger and Calabrese indicate that uncertainty reduction is influenced by seven axioms (variables). The first variable of URT is the amount of communication between the two social actors (verbal communication). Uncertainty levels will decrease with the increase in the amount of verbal communication. The second variable is the non-verbal affiliative expressiveness. This variable takes into account the non-verbal signals (nods, eye contact, distance between each other and arm signals) that may communicate warmth. As these signal increase, uncertainty levels decrease. The third axiom is seeking information. Strangers may often engage in question-asking so as to know more about their partners and this will enable them know more about the other. Information seeking often reduces the levels of uncertainty. The fourth variable in URT is intimacy level of communication content. Low levels of uncertainty will cause a higher intimacy level of content communication. This is evident in the low levels of communication content due to higher uncertainties during the first stages of relationships. Reciprocity is the fifth variable of URT and is mainly concerned with the sharing of information between the two social actors. Lower levels of uncertainty will lead to reciprocity of information while higher levels will lead to lower levels of information sharing. Similarity is the sixth axiom and is mainly concerned with the shared cultural practices and values between people. When two people have a lot in common, there is a higher likelihood that there would be a reduction in uncertainty in their relationship. Lack of similarities between two people will lead to higher levels of uncertainty. Liking is the last axiom and is concerned with the feeling of favor or attraction towards another. An increase in uncertainty level will most likely lead to reduced liking while a decrease will lead to increased liking.
Downs (2003) applied uncertainty reduction theory to family commitment in an effort to expand the theory to marriages. Motivated by the fact that family commitment forms a key pillar in family relationships, the author sought to find out using uncertainty reduction theory how family commitment affects marriages. It is common to observe that remarried families fail to achieve family commitment due to the uncertainties that may exist in the remarried families (Downs, 2003). The respondents indicated that they were highly committed to their families and they perceived their strong family commitment came from the high support levels for their relationships from their families and the high degree of role clarity and certainty. The respondents indicated that support from the current relationship played a key role in their commitment to family. In cases of a remarriage, a mutual child was one that brought about family commitment. As it can be noted family commitment mainly borders on support from the current relationship and family, and role clarity (Downs, 2003).
Yifeng (2015) sought to understand the effectiveness of uncertainty reduction theory by applying it in a classroom setting. The researcher paired students that did not know each other hence creating a natural environment in which the students will interact as strangers to reduce uncertainty. The instructor also asked the students to examine the things that were similar between them. By conducting this study, Yifeng (2015) found out that the students interacted actively thereby bringing about the main premise of uncertainty reduction theory. Also, through the classroom activity, the interactions between the students brought about the axioms of URT clearly. Yoo (2009), on the other hand, sought to test the relationship between reduction of uncertainty and information valence. Yoo (2009) found out that the quantity of information plays a key role in reducing the level of uncertainty. Further, Yoo (2015) went on to suggest that not only the quantity of information was important to reduce the level of uncertainty but also information valence that has a very huge impact on the reduction of uncertainty.
Parks & Aldeman (1983) in their study sought to expand URT to comprise the general solidity of relationships by examining romantic relationships. The researchers conducted their study through the use of questionnaires and telephone interviews. The results of their study showed that people were less likely to break up with their partners and experienced less uncertainty about their partners if they communicated more with their partners, communicated more with their partner’s friends and family, received greater support from their partner and had more similarities to their partners (Parks & Aldeman (1983). The researchers were able to demonstrate that if a person was able to develop a close relationship with his/her significant others’ friends and family, then the chances of the couple breaking up were very little. The authors managed to a great extent to expand the uncertainty reduction theory beyond the early stages of interaction. Park and alderman were also able to confirm that the network that a partner in the relationship has formed with the friends and family of their partner has a close association with couple’s dyadic variables.
Gibbs, Ellison & Lai (2011), investigated uncertainty reduction strategies and self-disclosure in online dating. The researchers sought to investigate the relationships between the privacy concerns of individuals, self-disclosure among people engaging in online dating and uncertainty reduction behaviors. In their study, the researchers found out that the frequency with which uncertainty reduction strategies are used is predicted by three online dating concerns that include personal security, recognition and misrepresentation. The authors take note of the fact that online settings may pose a big challenge to uncertainty reductions strategies due to the fact that they lack a number of traditional identity cues and also insufficient immediate feedback (Gibbs, Ellison & Lai, 2011). However, it is factual that interpersonal relationships can be developed though online modes of communication as a person get to understand the behavior of the other person or predict their behavior. For example e-mail communication, e-commerce and social networking sites (SNS’s) has been found to portray uncertainty reduction strategies (Gibbs, Ellison & Lai, 2011). Dating sites bring people together even though there is a lack of non-verbal cues and a shared physical context. In as much as these variables bring about greater levels of uncertainty, people often employ other uncertainty reduction strategies and ultimately develop a relationship. Even though online dating is being embraced widely, concerns over a person’s privacy and security, and also misinterpretation often create barriers to reduction of uncertainties.
According to Gibbs, Ellison & Lai (2011) self-disclosure in Computer Mediated Contexts (CMC) is more than in face-to-face communication. The ability of a person to be anonymous, shared interests among people and online presence rather than physical presence may lead a person to disclose more online which may eventually lead to liking and intimacy among the two people interacting through CMC. It has been found out that people who engage in a more honest, free disclosure and open communication are most likely to form successful relationship and hence by full disclosure online, people may reduce uncertainties between them. Even though the online context presents ways to reduce uncertainties, it also has its challenges. For example, before the first face-to-face meeting between two individuals engaging in online dating, a person may use other technological means to verify information provided by the other or may contact friends or family to get to know them further. This may bring about objective and subjective verification that may increase the uncertainties.
Palmieri et al, (2012) studied how the rise of social networking sites (SNS’s) such as Facebook has affected self-disclosure and uncertainty reduction. The researchers found out that self-disclosure on facebook affected reduction in uncertainties among interacting parties. With frequent communication between people over the social networking sites, there is a relative reduction in the level of uncertainty between them (Palmieri et al., 2012). Given the wide usage of SNS’s all over the world, it is evident that the modes of communication are clearly changing and this has an impact on the uncertainty reduction theory. SNS’s such as Facebook have been able to create connections and enable effective and efficient communication between different people, whether friends or family. SNS’s have transformed how people perceive interpersonal reactions and relationship development, and this is mainly as a result of self-disclosure (Palmieri et a., 2012). Self-disclosure relates to any message that reveals information about a person to others. As stated by Berger & Calebrese (1975), uncertainty reduction is information exchange between people that allows a person to make sense of social situations and form impressions about the other. Hence uncertainty reduction would enable people to predict the behaviors, attitudes and actions of others which may ease the anxiety that may be present during initial social interactions (Berger & Calabrese, 1975). A number of research studies carried out on online self-disclosure have indicated that it is carried out in ways similar face-to-face communication. Due to technological advancements, researchers are in agreement that online interactions and relationships can greatly be enhanced by the features of these SNS’s. As a result of the limitation of non-verbal cues in online relationships, self-disclosure is a more powerful issue. In Facebook, it is assumed that the information that a person divulges to another will motivate the other to like him or her. As such in these social networking sites, how a person presents information about oneself will affect a relationship or friendship.
URT states that the primary goal of inter-personal relationships is uncertainty reduction. Antheunis et al., (2000) conducted a study on Computer-Mediated Contexts (CMC) and found out that people interacting online are able to achieve reduction in uncertainties over the people that they interact with over the internet. Antheunis et al., (2000) further found out that people using the online sources are able to apply the same uncertainty reduction strategies in face-to-face communications as they do in CMC’s. Further, the researchers found out that even though people communicating online may lack some of the features found in face-to-face communications such as personal appearance and physical proximity, these people are still able to achieve reduction in uncertainties. The lacking non-verbal cues in CMC are replaced by emoji’s, emoticons and smileys among other cues. Antheunis et al., (2000) indicated that in instances where people lack non-verbal cues, they usually adapt their linguistic skills and relationship behavior to those that they are communicating to through a specific medium. Facebook, in particular, has a highly enhanced CMC environment that has a number of cues. Facebook users offer self-disclosure through posting on their walls, pictures, videos, relationship status and personal information among others. By providing these vast amounts of personal information, the social networking site has been found to contribute greatly to strategies of uncertainty reduction used by individuals (Antheunis et al., 2000). URT states that the seeking of information often eases the anxieties or fears of earlier on interactions between individuals in social environments where uncertainty and unpredictability of partners may be common. With Facebook, if the users perceive a person to have similarities with him or her, and also finds them socially attractive, there is a higher chance of greater predictability that may lead to uncertainty reduction.
URT has been applied to online communication to study social interactions such as dating. URT has been examined in relation to CMC. One of the major limitations or URT in relation to online interactions is the fact that computer-mediated communications often lack the non-verbal cues that are normally present in face-to-face communications. According to Berger and Calabrese (1975), non-verbal cues often play an important role in the formation of impressions process. Since the non-verbal cues are key to the impression formation process, their unavailability in online communication processes creates a problem from online impression formation. Nevertheless, in accordance with the Social Information Process Theory (SIPT), many individuals often adapt to the CMC barriers by finding other means that may lead to them finding more information about the people they are interacting with via CMC. As such, the limitations of CMC are catered for by the strategies the individuals employ to get to know more about the other person (Westerman & Tamborini, 2008). Consistent with the predictions of many authors, it has been found out that people who communicate using CMC often ask more direct questions and disclosed more information that those engaging in face-to-face communications (Westerman & Tamborini, 2008).
Westerman & Tamborini (2006) studied the relationship between the use of questions, disclosures and non-verbal communication in communication media for uncertainty reduction. The authors found out that the differences in the availability on non-verbal communication among different communication media would influence the interactive reduction of uncertainties. By examining CMC and face-to-face communication modes, the authors found out that in the initial stages of interaction between two strangers, the levels of uncertainties were the same. A few minutes into the interaction, uncertainties had reduced in both CMC and face-to-face interactions but rate of reduction was slightly higher in the face-to-face communication. The results of their studies affirmed the fact that uncertainty reduction can be achieved through both modes of communication but take much longer in CMC due to the unavailability of non-verbal cues. In as much as their study was consistent with the findings of Social Information Process Theory, a number of questions arise related to the process of governing reduction of uncertainties among the modes of communication.
The key premise of URT is that the primary goal of strangers when they initially meet is to reduce any uncertainties that may exist between them. In line with this premise, it is apparent that both verbal and non-verbal communication is important in reducing uncertainties among different people. According to Berger and Calabrese (1975), verbal communication and non-verbal communication are the first two axioms of URT which play an important role in increasing further communication between strangers. Uncertainty reduction in CMC would be a difficult goal to attain given its lack of non-verbal cues. However, it has been seen that uncertainties can still be reduced in CMC. It has been found out that people would tend to utilize whatever there are (cues) to achieve uncertainty reduction to compensate for the communication limits of their medium of communication. Consequently, the presence of non-verbal cues in face-to-face communication makes it have fewer uncertainties as compared to CMC.
Uncertainty Reduction Theory is a theory that has been widely studied and is still applicable in the current settings. A number of scholars have carried out extensive researches on uncertainty reduction and have found out that its premise is true. Currently, uncertainty reduction theory is widely used and applied to relationships that are new. URT is continually being used to predict early interaction events. Also, the theory is being applied to study interactions between different cultures and social organizations. Different studies have revealed that the fear of inter-cultural communication is mainly due to the high levels of uncertainties (Neuliep, 2012). Using URT, it is possible to understand how people from different cultures are able to interact with each other. The theory is widely being applied in CMC as experimental research continues to reveal that CMC reveals higher levels of interpersonal communication than face-to-face communication. By relying on the interactive uncertainty reduction strategies, people interacting over CMC are able to form impressions about each other and predict behavior. Antheunis et al., (2000) found out that information seeking in CMC is higher than information seeking in face-to-face communication. With the emergence of online dating and e-commerce, uncertainty reduction theory has come to life as it provides an explanation on how strangers enter into relationships and how strangers engage in a business transaction online. The interactions between people in social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter are testament that uncertainty reduction theory is still relevant and hence the need of further research.
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