According to Dekun Zheng (1983), China has been one of Asia’s most distinguished countries, and it has been known to have a class structure which has divided it into two Chinas. The upper class and the rural class has had clear demarcations in the country. The upper class of the Chinese civilization has enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle which has been visible from their expenditure, way of living and spending. Moreover, the author mentions the importance of gaining a classical education, which has been important to the Chinese upper class that helped them rise above the rural class of the country. What has distinguished them, more importantly, was the extent of luxury they employed which eventually led to their degradation but it was visible in the Chinese art and culture, upon which the upper class was adamant to spend on. The political tendencies and religious influences have also been helpful in showing the side of the upper class, in fact, it was their religious influence that has been predominant in influencing the rural class as well. The life of the upper class is present in the art and culture of China. This study revealed that the upper class was distinguished from the rural or lower class by means of education which separated the two.
Albert E. Dein (1991) the upper class which included the royals of the country, were adamant in allowing their children to study and being able to master the certain teachings of the time so they can gain a certain status. Status was also shown after the boys of the emperor had their hair braided, for example, after which they were eligible for education. The upper class was meant to from the officials of the country however they were able to take part in political decisions, converse on subjects of history and could also take part in composing poetry. Therefore upper class was hinged on gaining an education so that these people could take up
official occupations and become officials in the country as well as establish careers. Classics were taught as well, which helped to groom them to rule the commoners. The book acknowledged the fact that it was important for the upper class to maintain their distinction by turning into officials of the time and making careers and being able to maintain their hegemony over the lower classes.
Yoshio Sugimoto (2014) writes about Japanese social class in the past and present. Ancient Japan was hierarchically divided into the nobility, which included the emperor, the samurai, and the Daimyo. The lower class included the peasants and farmers as well as artisans and craftsmen, and the last class was the merchants. The Emperor held all the power for decision making without any interference or cross-questioning. The Daimyo consisted of the warlords and held the military and economic strings of the country so much so that they had the conquered the leadership and security of the country. The lower class was a constituent of farmers and peasants. However, the middle class has risen since the end of the 20th century which has increased the country’s demand for education and academic interest. There are a set of 5 classes in Japan, where class A consists of individuals who are well-educated, well-settled and have a good income and lavish lifestyle. There is class B which constitutes younger university graduates who make a good income however they do not hold managerial positions. Class C consists of members who have good incomes but do not have proper educational backgrounds. Class D happens to be the largest class of Japanese society as it consists of the working class. These are the members who have completed high school and set out for mediocre jobs. Class E is the lowest class of Japan whose income is below the poverty line. These are people employed by small businesses. This source reveals that Japanese society has improved in terms of education, but there has been a more diverse classification of class in the society.
The European society has seen a very different kind of upper-class society, which has been represented by the courtly system of the country, according to Murray (2004), the 16th century Europe was comprised of the Romantic Era where there are exemplifications of the
society at the time in the literature of the period. Sensibility was prevalent in the time from Rousseau, and the upper class was fond of drama and romanticism. It was the middle class that was burgeoning, and they were also fond of the romantic era however upper-class individuals were thoroughly represented as courtly individuals, represented by their decadent lifestyle. On the other hand, the middle class and working class was considered uncultured and formed the commercial class of the time. The upper class maintained a hegemonic system where they were formed of the aristocracy and reigned over the middle and working class. On the other hand, the middle class and working class was constantly trying for cultural, social and economic equality or striving for betterment in the society. However, the upper class determined the kind of culture and society that Europe was going to have in its system and how the middle class and upper class were going to communicate with one another. Sensibility was going to become the future of the changing stations of the upper class in Britain and the rest of Europe in the centuries to come. According to the author, the novels from the Romantic Era, for example, are typically relevant to the European upper class in the past, which was mostly aristocratic and maintained an upper hand over the rest of the social classes.
The book The Preindustrial city: Past and present by Sjoberg (1960) discusses the difference of class in the Asian societies, particularly in Asia, Eurasia, and the Middle East. The preindustrial was one that was convincingly superior to the rest such as the upper class of the Chinese literati who dressed in garments which were forbidden to be worn by other classes. Similarly, there was a strict class structure in the Indian caste system, which disallowed others from joining the upper class or being a part of it anytime in the future, unless they were born in that class. The Elizabethan era saw a trend similar to that of China where the furs and jewels
were only worn by the upper class or elites of the society but were forbidden to the lower classes. Persian societies were ranked and characterized by the kind of lanterns the people carried when they ventured out. Those who carried smaller paper lanterns belonged to the lower classes, while if a servant of a governor general was passing by he could be seen carrying a lantern two feet in diameter. Social order was also categorized by language such as the elites, who only made formal speeches on important occasions. Otherwise, the upper class was not seen communicating with the lower classes. The commoners of the society were unable to comprehend their speech. The speech was also the barrier between the upper class and rest of the society as the upper class was constantly using different phraseology and even verbs and grammatical terms different from the lower classes. Hence, the author points out the classification of upper class on the basis of clothing and language which can be seen on many different occasions.
Rietbergen (2005) writes about Europe’s changing upper class after the Industrial Revolution. The revolution broke the feudal system, where there were major portions of land owned by the richer elites of, the older upper classes in societies of Britain, France, Scotland and other European areas. There was a shift in the upper class as the lower classes gained money from their entrepreneurial skills. The merchants bloomed in the country, and they were able to produce industrialized goods which had a lot of monetary value for them. The break from the aristocracy was seen when the industrialized society saw a break from their constitutional hold and the power landed in the hands of middle classes and bourgeoisie which was working toward the right to vote, hence a visible shift from monarchy to democracy was growing in the nation. The other change was the shift from dynastic politics moving into the hands of the merchants and
industrialists who wanted to ensure they were the ones going to dominate politics legally. Hence, the European society saw a shift in the movement of classes when the aristocracy was joined by people who held occupations as bankers, merchants, factory owners, railway and ship owners, as well as the men who were carrying out trade internationally. The status symbol for these new elites was the purchase and show off of luxury consumer goods which they flaunted very openly. The writer mentions that literature shows evidence of this in novels like ‘The Picture of Dorian Gray’ where the more items a person had and the more they were considered to belong to the richer class, and their prestige and honor lay in that material wealth. Therefore the aristocrats lost their servants and patrons, who were seen opening shops and working in the markets where they were able to earn a considerable amount of wealth and were shifting to the upper class. The middle class grew in the European society as a result of the salaried jobs and educational empowerment of the people in the middle class, which made them a distinct part of the society. The book shows the transition with time about how the aristocracy lost its hegemony, and the definition of the upper class saw a change from feudal system to the mercantile.
According to the American class system, the upper class is known as Old Money, as Forbes writes it. The characterization of Old Money is wealth, assurance and most importantly, prestige. Prestige is what separates the Old Money individuals from the nouveau rich. Although New Money individuals earned and worked hard enough to establish their worth and their assets might be just as high as Old Money, but the distinct upper-class Old Money had their own way of employing language, mannerisms, and educational upbringing. They stayed in homes which were ancestral and preferred a certain kind of lifestyle that could not be adopted by the
New Money individuals. Old Money consciousness is a phenomenon where prestige is most important as individuals are recognized for their wealth and importance in society as per their past heritage of money and influence. Old Money survived in the Great Depression, but this was also when new money arose, and individuals began to merge their wealth and influence. However, the question of the prominence of Old Money became an issue as it became indistinguishable especially after the growth of businesses, industries and the rampancy of which individuals were going about their asset growth. New Money sent their children to the same institutions like the Old Money, and the difference was begun to eliminate. Upper class emerged in America in the form of Carnegie, Morgan, and Rockefeller and it changed the perspective of the classes involved. Today, Old Money is seen to emerge as a class which does not take any chances with their prestige such as businessmen who have established empires and their work is encompassing billions of dollars. Although New Money sees its special appearance as well, it is Old Money that till date stands as the true upper class of American society. This validation is made from various serials and commercials which are prominent in American pop culture like the TV show ‘2 broke girls’ which shows how Old Money individuals are always business-minded and well-settled whereas the middle or working class struggles on minimum wage and is seen to have a little drive for optimism.
Fussel (1991) writes about the transition from the upper class and the rest of the social classes in modern-day America. The country has moved from its previous system where the upper class is seen constantly trying to maintain its superiority and monetary value in the country. On the other hand, there is the middle class, which is conscious of its status and is seen
desperate in the daily grind of white collar jobs. Then there is the working class which has its own lifestyle, and the individuals work odd jobs to maintain a living. Today, the top classes of the country assume that taste, style, behavior, ideas, and values are the prerequisite to their class and that specific behavior makes them representatives of their class. This is a perception that is carried out without any regard to education, even money or wealth, and property. Today, it is realized by many people in their middle years that their advantage to ascension into the upper class was more rightly based on their social environment while growing up, their inheritance and their wealth. Democracy has tried to eliminate these differences to a large extent, but there still remains the question of pre-inherited wealth and social status of the parents and the upbringing of individuals. Therefore the author writes that in the present day American society, class difference is distinct in the form of education, inherited wealth and the potential chances that an individual can gain in life. American media is very open about this topic as there are individuals who gain their way to the top by hard work and opportunities they come across in life, and there are others who are either left jobless or are at a loss of chances in their life.
This literature review shows the classification of upper-class societies in the Asian, Arabian, European and American societies. There are validations of these societal setups found in the form of literature, novels, poetry, art, theater, and movies and music which depict the class difference respective of each culture. It is true that today the upper class has shrunk almost everywhere and the middle class and working classes have grown largely which have distinct lives from those of the upper classes. Following through the past, the trends have changed, and the middle classes do aspire to become more like the upper classes, but there are differences in behavior, language, taste and lifestyle that differentiate the upper classes from the rest, distinctly.
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