Aubrey, J.S., & Frisby, C.M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: a content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society 14: 475-501.
In this article, Aubrey and Frisby (2011) create a coding system which measures the correlations between representations of women and sexual objectification. According to their findings, female artists provide a greater amount of sexual objectification in their videos, and are placed under greater pressure to appear more attractive and glamorous. They are also more likely to showcase sexually suggestive behavior and attitudes. This evidences adds to the argument that women are problematically presented in popular culture and media, as they are placed under a male gaze to be as attractive as possible; a woman’s sexuality is shown to be her primary feature, which must be showcased in the R&B and hip-hop music industries. The world of music videos is shown to be rife with negative, sexualized stereotypes of women, stripping them of female agency by instead showing them as sex objects.
Bligh, M.C., Schlehofer, M.M., Casad, B.J., & Gaffney, A.M. (2012). Competent enough, but would you vote for her? Gender stereotypes and media influences on perception of women politicians. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42(3) 560-597.
In this article, Bligh et al. (2012) examine the media coverage of men and women politicians and how they differ. In essence, the authors successfully argue that gender stereotypes and established gender norms make it more difficult for men and women alike to take female politicians seriously; women as a whole were given more negative perceptions of their abilities as leaders. The ‘competent but cold’ stereotype in particular is argued to be extremely prevalent in news media, in which women who are capable and skilled are still not media-friendly due to their coldness (a trait valued in men but devalued in women). The authors note that women politicians must be careful to cultivate a media depiction that defies this stereotype in order to achieve results.
ter Bogt, T.F.M., Engels, R.C.M.E. (2010). ‘Shake it, baby, shake it’: Media preferences, sexual attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles 63: 844-859.
Bogt & Engels (2010), in this article, examine the relationship between media preferences of youth were compared to gender stereotypes and permissive sexual attitudes between women. According to the results, media preferences positively associated with gender stereotypes included house and hip-hop music, as well as the active seeking out of Internet pornography by young men. Preferences were found to be more of a factor than exposure, indicating an active desire for those stereotypes being necessary to make them more prevalent in youth. Media is shown to have a tremendously influential effect on the forming of attitudes and behaviors regarding gender and sexuality for adolescents; the glorification of sexiness and machismo in television and music videos contributes to the objectification of women by both genders. This provides young men with an unrealistic view of human relationships and the role of women, which can be a very big influence on their behavior in adult life.
Desmond, R., & Danilewicz, A. (2010). Women are on, but not in, the news: Gender roles in local television news. Sex Roles 62: 822-829.
In this article, Desmond and Danileqicz (2010) examine the role of women in news media; content analysis was performed on nearly 600 news stories to determine the gender differences in reporters and anchors, as well as the kinds of stories reported on. According to the results, women reporters are often relegated to human interest/health stories, and men are more likely to present political or violent stories. Male anchors are also a much more prevalent phenomenon than female anchors. This article sheds light on the continued sexism that occurs in popular culture and media, as it perpetuates the idea that men are more equipped to handle ‘serious’ news stories, and women are only interested in less consequential efforts. Greater equality in news anchor gender differences must occur in order to provide a more balanced representation in news media.
England, D.E., Descartes, L., & Collier-Meek, M.A. (2011). Gender role portrayal and the Disney princesses. Sex Roles 64: 555-567.
In this article, England, Descartes and Collier-Meek (2011) examine the portrayal of women in one of the most prevalent and well-known girl-targeted media enterprises today – the Disney princesses. By using content analysis, the authors determine that the role of the Disney princess has been ever-changing, and the films in which they have been featured provide quite a number of stereotypical attitudes towards gender roles. The men in these films are granted a lot more leeway with their gender roles, including some androgyny, whereas the princess are only permitted to commit to these specific gender role portrayals. That being said, there is a bit more complexity found in these gender role portrayals than in most other gendered media, and its massive influence creates a great opportunity to create more nuanced portrayals of gender roles in future works.
Funk, L.C. & Werhun, C.D. (2011). ‘You’re such a girl!’ The psychological drain of the gender- role harassment of men. Sex Roles 65:13-22.
In this article, Funk & Werhun (2011) examine the role that male-to-male gendered harassment plays in gender psychology. According to the results, harassment towards men about their perceived failures to uphold certain gendered role traits (being manly and aggressive) by men leads to a tremendous amount of anxiety and psychological drain on the part of those being harassed. This plays into the negative depictions of the gendered traits women are socialized to have; using the word ‘girl’ as a pejorative in male harassment is shown to have a dramatic effect on men. When men are harassed, they feel a need to reassert those manly, aggressive traits by displaying physical strength in a more concentrated manner. The results of this article plays into the examination of socialized women’s traits as things that are so undesirable men strive to be as little like women as possible.
Kahlenberg, S.G. & Hein, M.M. (2010). Progression on Nickelodeon? Gender-Role Stereotypes in Toy Commercials. Sex Roles 62:830-847.
In this article, Kahlenberg & Hein (2010) conduct a content analysis to show the gender role portrayals in children’s toy commercials. According to the results, boys were more likely to be in commercials where there is adventurous, outdoor playing, as well as competitive games and toys. Identifiable girls and boys were shown playing with stereotypically-chosen toy selections (girls with dolls and dollhouses, boys with action/sports toys and so on). At the same time, there was much less gendered role portrayal as anticipated, indicating the potential for children’s toy commercials to become more diverse and respectful to both genders – although progress can still be made. The authors claim that some progress towards equality in gender representation is found in toy commercials, with more equitable distribution of both genders in each.
Neuendorf, K.A., Gore, T.D., Dalessandro, A., Janstova, P., & Snyder-Suhy, S. (2010). Shaken and stirred: a content analysis of women’s portrayals in James Bond films. Sex Roles 62:747-761.
In this article, Neuendorf et al. (2010) conduct a content analysis of 20 of the popular James Bond film series to examine the portrayals of its female characters. According to the results, women in the films are historically and repeatedly used as sexual objects and placed in harm’s way, linking sexuality to violence in terms of their sex roles. The authors conclude that the James Bond film series is one of the most indicative media franchises in Western culture to depict its regressive and misogynistic views, with women having little to no agency of their own. Instead, they are props for the male audience surrogate to objectify and benefit from (or otherwise defeat through violence). These films in particular play a large part in depicting women as weak or being defined primarily by their attractiveness or sexual attainability.
Simister, J. (2013). Is men’s share of housework reduced by ‘gender deviance neutralization’? Evidence from seven countries. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 44(3): 312-325.
In Simister’s (2013) article, a sociological and economic analysis of household behavior is conducted to see how unpaid housework is divided by gender. The ‘gender deviance neutralization’ is theorized to contribute to the perpetual and comparative lack of housework men perform around the house; unjust distribution of housework favoring the man occurs regardless of the amount of work or income the woman receives. Given the gender role depiction of women taking the brunt of the housework, it is necessary to examine whether or not that is changing in a more modern world where women have successfully entered the workforce.
Stanescu, D.F. (2012). Interpersonal perception skills and the effects of gender and gender roles.
Stanescu (2012) examines the effect of gender roles on the ability for men and women to be socially aware and accurate in interpersonal communications. According to his results, there is little difference in empathic accuracy between men and women, though women are found to be able to tell lies more accurately (and men can better tell who has won a competition). This plays into the myth of ‘women’s intuition’ and supports it, denoting the presence of a kernel of truth in gendered stereotypes which can help to perpetuate them.
Tortajada, I., Arauna, N. & Martinez, I.J. (2013). Advertising stereotypes and gender representation in social networking sites. Communicar 41(21): 177-186.
In this article, Tortajada, Arauna and Martinez (2013) perform a mixed methods analysis of social networking sites such as Fotolog in order to determine how adolescents present themselves online. The self-presentation of many adolescents in social media, it is found, depict several different kinds of gender expressions, from eroticized body poses found in advertising to the ‘lesbian pose’ that indicates their sexual orientation. According to the results, media representations of gender play a large part in adolescent self-presentation, though they do carry the capacity to fashion their own identities. The importance of media education and literacy is emphasized as a means to overcome the influence of media in determining personal self-presentation.
References
Aubrey, J.S., & Frisby, C.M. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: a content analysis
comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society 14: 475-501.
Bligh, M.C., Schlehofer, M.M., Casad, B.J., & Gaffney, A.M. (2012). Competent enough, but
would you vote for her? Gender stereotypes and media influences on perception of women politicians. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 42(3) 560-597.
ter Bogt, T.F.M., Engels, R.C.M.E. (2010). ‘Shake it, baby, shake it’: Media preferences, sexual
attitudes and gender stereotypes among adolescents. Sex Roles 63: 844-859.
Desmond, R., & Danilewicz, A. (2010). Women are on, but not in, the news: Gender roles in
local television news. Sex Roles 62: 822-829.
England, D.E., Descartes, L., & Collier-Meek, M.A. (2011). Gender role portrayal and the
Disney princesses. Sex Roles 64: 555-567.
Funk, L.C. & Werhun, C.D. (2011). ‘You’re such a girl!’ The psychological drain of the gender-
role harassment of men. Sex Roles 65:13-22.
Kahlenberg, S.G. & Hein, M.M. (2010). Progression on Nickelodeon? Gender-Role Stereotypes
in Toy Commercials. Sex Roles 62:830-847.
Neuuendorf, K.A., Gore, T.D., Dalessandro, A., Janstova, P., & Snyder-Suhy, S. (2010). Shaken
and stirred: a content analysis of women’s portrayals in James Bond films. Sex Roles 62:747-761.
Simister, J. (2013). Is men’s share of housework reduced by ‘gender deviance neutralization’?
Evidence from seven countries. Journal of Comparative Family Studies 44(3): 312-325.
Stanescu, D.F. (2012). Interpersonal perception skills and the effects of gender and gender roles.
Romanian Journal of Communication and Public Relations 14(1): 91.
Tortajada, I., Arauna, N. & Martinez, I.J. (2013). Advertising stereotypes and gender
representation in social networking sites. Communicar 41(21): 177-186.
