The advancement in molecular genetics and genomics and their application in the field of medicine will raise crucial socio-scientific issues. Science teaching has the objective of educating scientifically literate citizens while genetic and genomic technologies addresses the science courses. The prime goal of the educational policies in all industrialized societies is to provide science literacy in education. The Western world applies a similar set of scientific standards. The key role attributes to genes as determinants of health, behavior, and human identity. Molecular Genetics and Genomics (325) say that genetics is a scientific field with the concern of science literacy. The media channels its attention to the identification of genetics as a basis of human traits to increase the availability of the direct-to-consumer genetic tests, as the non-experts comprehend the reliable genetic knowledge to acquire the necessities of the society. In this case, the science educators and teachers need information concerning the current status of genetics and genomics research, technological innovations, ethical issues, and biomedical applications Scientific research is a prerequisite for the public to understand the importance of science and medicine. The two main competencies that relate to science literacy have the objective of enforcing the scientific concepts and the aspects of nature such as explanatory skills and inquiry. The other objective of science literacy is to engage in argumentation and decision-making practices that relate to socio-scientific issues. The competencies represent unique and close interdependent objective of scientific education. Korf (15) observes that for one to be able to formulate arguments in social-scientific issues, one has to understand the scientific concepts and the explanations. For instance, the knowledge concerning stem cells and the process of obtaining them will affect the moral judgments of people in research and therapy. The engagement in argumentation and decision-making practices that relate to socio-scientific issues provide an opportunity for the field to raise new scientific opinions that will motivate the students to understand the scientific issues in a great depth. For instance, students can argue against a ban on embryonic stem cell research in support of the benefits or some of the students would have opposing views once they learn concerning induced pluripotent stem cells. The centrality of science content in the arguments of this nature will promote knowledge and understanding to the scientific content. Genetic literacy as science literacy has two unique components such as the content taught in the classes such as questions confronted by the DNA Genes, patterns of inheritance, and chromosomes. The other component questions what students may encounter as citizens. Some of the ethical questions relate to genetic testing, genetically modified organisms, and genetic engineering. The student's conception perceives on the naïve genetic determinism so as to help them in the identification of present or absence of the complex traits. A recent research by Limborskaya (156) illustrate that the complex trait is due to the interaction of many behavioral, environmental, and genetic factors with the molecular networks. A contemporary presentation of genetics has a control code that will note the effects of the genetic material. The Genome-wide association according to Molecular Genetics and Genomics (327) aim to identify all the genetic factors that relate to health and disease.
Impact of the discipline
Mendelian patterns in Genetic and molecular genetics discipline of women associate with BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The genes of Mendelian inheritance predispose them to breast cancer and ovarian cancer. The genes identify mutations carries susceptible genotype higher than 50 percent. The genetic diseases exhibit genetic phenomenon called allelic heterogeneity in the multiple mutations of the same gene. In some instances the genetic disease associate with locus heterogeneity to increase the risk of the disease. Saudi Arabia has more than 30 certified clinical geneticists in the nation that receive state funds to enable their operations, In the centers, physicians receive their training from overseas that specialize in clinical genetics and accredited to medical genetics. The physicians cover the major disciplines of clinical genetics such as prenatal and cancer. The discipline supports a limited number of certified genetic counselors. Most patients with neurocognitive phenotypes compel the physician to assume the role of the clinical geneticist due to lack of enough number of pediatric neurologists. Hematologists assist in taking care of families since the typical case of clinical genetics entails working up or counseling. The nationwide practices include traditional cytogenetic testing and FISH analysis. Modern karyotyping is only present in few centers. The major molecular diagnostic laboratory is located at Saudi Diagnostic Laboratory test “Mendeliome” assay and applies new multiplexing methods to amplify Mendelian genes that cause human diseases preceded by next generation sequencing. The first establishment on newborn screening was held on 1989. The pioneering work of Tandem Spectrometry uses electrospray to implement and analyze different metabolites in the body fluids. Maternal –fetal medicine specialists practice prenatal genetic due to severe deficiency in the number of qualified clinical geneticists. The law permits therapeutic abortion within 120 days from the time of fertilization to comply with the Islamic law of emolument. Three-level attending physicians must authorize the process. Medical practitioners have the discretion of severe cases after consulting with the families.
American clinicians define medical genetics as the science of human biological variation that relates to health and disease in the study of pathogenesis and etiology. The medical genetic services are integrated clinical and laboratory services provided to people with significant genetic component. In America, medical genetics grows within human genetics with a plan of research to the modest clinical component. Progress of medical genetics was possible due to conceptual and technological advances in the 1960s (Muenke 1).The growth of dysmorphology especially in cytogenetic and biochemical geneticists grew in the 1970’s when the medical geneticists became more clinical and pediatric in the orientation. The American Society of Human Genetics issue a warning, “that medical geneticists have to broaden their field of interests to enable them encompass other fields other than pediatric interest only.” The scientist field in America evolves from research-oriented science to service-oriented specialty. The logical development is a sign of increasing maturity that can motivate the practitioners in extensive research. The demand of clinical service enables more basic research attempts of medical geneticists. In 1980, the American Society of Human Genetics certified medical geneticists and genetic counselors that will accredit training programs (Muenke 2). The creation of American College of Medical Genetics ten years later relives the society of clinical genetics to permit extensive research and education agenda.
Current and future outlook
Women may get a chance to work independently after pursuing Genetics and genomics major. One can study the ways in which cancer cells become genetically different from patient’s own cells. Gaudilliere (4) says that genomics emerges as a scientific field after the invention of original DNA sequencing technique pioneered by Fredrick Sanger. The medical practitioner introduced a chemical method for reading 100 nucleotides that take six months to prepare. The community of scientists around the globe helps the technique to evolve to a choice of sequencing. The first draft sequencing takes 13 years to finish, and the project was very costly. Pro sequencing is an alternative technology that basis on sequencing-by-synthesis. The technique sequences many microbial genomes such as James Watson genome. In 2006, Illumina Corporation introduces reversible dye-terminator sequencing-by-synthesis. The technology has increased throughput in 10,000 fold compared to pro sequencing that had 100 fold. The dye-terminator sequencing brings down the cost of operation in the human genome. The most recent system can allow sequencing to several human genomes in one run. Sequencing the genome consists of basic biochemical steps that have the difficulty of encoding information. An engineering-based approach makes it easy to read and process immense amounts of information and parallelize the sequencing reactions.DNA sequencing arranges four genetic bases that include fragmentation, isolation, amplification, and readout. The genome analyzer and HiSeq systems will offer parallel nature of the biochemical workflow. Ligated adapters serve as handles for each segment to allow for manipulation in downstream reactions. For instance, they can provide a means to trap the DNA segment in the flow call before releasing it. The genome analyzer can also provide an area where primers bind for the sequencing reaction. Future frontiers of genomics lie in the improvement of technology to adapt to a broader range of applications. Scientists plan to increase accuracy that will enable all diagnostic applications, increase sensitivity to ensure the system is robust in the handling of signal to noise ratios, and increase performance to bring down the operational costs.
Works Cited
Gaudilliere, Jean, and Hans Rheinberger. From molecular genetics to genomics the mapping cultures of twentieth-century genetics. London: Routledge, 2014. Print.
Korf, Bruce R.. Human genetics and genomics. 3rd ed. Malden, Mass.: Blackwell Pub., 2013. Print.
Limborskaya, S. A.. "The International School of Young Scientists on Molecular Genetics “Genomics and Evolution” (December 1-5, 2008)." Molecular Genetics, Microbiology and Virology 24.3 (2009): 155-163. Print.
"Molecular Genetics and Genomics." Helicobacter 11.4 (2012): 324-329. Print.
Muenke, Maximilian. "Individualized genomics and the future of translational medicine." Molecular Genetics & Genomic Medicine 1.1 (2013): 1-3. Print.
