Introduction
Motivation is the drive that an individual has towards a certain goal. Motivation contributes by influencing the effort and interest that an athlete puts to a task. Hager (124) in his study describes motivation as a personal matter because what motivates an individual at a certain time may not motivate another individual at the same time. To improve and maintain an athlete’s performance motivation is essential. Athletes who lack motivation are likely to skip regular session of training and hence may not get to fully train with the required intensity. Miller (87) in his study states that lack of motivation leads athletes to not perform to the highest standards required in times of competition or games. Reinforcement is essential in ensuring that an athlete receives the right kind of motivation, reinforcement in this refers to the reward that influences the athlete to put all effort. Motivation can be positive or negative; both forms of motivation get used in sport. Using positive motivation is more effective when compared to negative motivation. Positive motivation gives higher improvement levels in performance and lasts longer than using negative motivation. Reinforcements are often in rewards form and let the athlete know that further progress leads to better rewards. Motivation can also be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation stems from within a person and may comprise of personal enjoyment or satisfaction from an athletic performance. Intrinsic motivation is believed to get more effective to an athlete other than relying on extrinsic motivation forms. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside sources such as trophies and money. Intrinsic motivation helps athletes to acquire and learn new skills. Intrinsic motivation helps to determine an athlete’s behavior, by creating the need to relate and feel competent by having relationships that are meaningful with people in the society. High intrinsic motivation stipulates athletes to participate in sport and improves their performance. In sport high motivation gets accepted as a requirement for an athlete to achieve their full potential. Motivation is about directing effort towards a sport for a long time.
Discussion
In his study Smith (154) says states that intrinsic motivation lacks any external pressure to push an athlete to perform well. Research by Tenenbaum (56) has revealed that athletes with good motivational outcomes like a positive attitude and persistence. Intrinsically motivated athletes do not have a competitive drive to be champions. Intrinsic motivation helps athletes enjoy their chosen sports but do not possess a competitive attitude toward their personalities. Research by Spielberger (101) has also revealed that motivational climate can get results oriented and lay emphasis on winning, social comparison feelings of competence and self referenced goals. The young athletes need enough time to master their skills in sport without getting compared to peers and winning pressures. For example, Kenyan athletes start running at a young age for fun and only get professional when older an example of such an athlete is David Rudisha and Ezekiel Kemboi who have continued to participate in sport due to intrinsic motivation.
Singer (86) states that young athletes should get encouraged to learn their sport and also learn that adequate effort improves performance and sports should get viewed as a fun activity. Adult athletes may get partly stimulated by tangible rewards provided for by a sport, however great emphasis should lay on the fun associated with the sport. It is more important to get intrinsic motivation than have high extrinsic motivation. The flow is the highest stage of intrinsic motivation and it gets characterized by immersing completely to an activity, to the extent that nothing else is of importance. To attain flow there has to be a perfect relation between an athlete’s perceived skills or ability and perceived demands from an activity. It important to note that during flow an athlete loses self consciousness and the athlete become one item with the activity. Coaches should ensure that athletes set goals that get realistic to avoid unrealistic and overbearing challenges that lead to excess anxiety. Brdar (87) have studied that boredom can result when an athlete brings an elevated level of skill to a sport and gets little challenge. For example, Brazils Ronaldihno displaying his skills in a junior football league is not exciting. Flow can get promoted by seeking challenges that stretch a touch further compared before experienced challenges.
A study carried out to examine the relationship between an athlete’s goal orientations and their levels of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation showed that, task related British athletes with personal mastery or task related goals reported elevated self determination compared social comparison goals or ego oriented. The study did show support for the proposition of showing focus on self referenced goals and personal mastery, promotes intrinsic motivation to a high degree than placing focus on winning and showing superiority to others. Intrinsic motivation has important impact on practitioners who deal with children provided that focusing on intrinsic motivation brings out positive outcomes of motivation. A recent study conducted by Silva (134) showed that in important competitions, athletes who were intrinsically motivated developed positive or task oriented strategies of coping. Extrinsically motivated athletes showed a tendency to avoid dealing with important issues and were likely to underperform in their goals.
A qualitative approach has been set by researchers to find why elite athletes have high performances. The research revealed that elite athletes set their own goals that got based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation (Lidor, 76). In their ability to succeed, they also showed a very high self belief, it also showed that the field and track was central to their livelihood and varying in their lives revolved around sport involvement. Cluster analysis in the statistical procedure identified two motivation profile types by (Gillet, Nicolas et al 94). The first type of motivation profile was characterized by self determined and controlling types of behavior. The second got characterized by low controlling motivation and high self determination. An assessment of the two motivation profiles on outcomes of satisfaction, enjoyment attitude towards a sport, negative and positive effect, and frequency of attendance showed strength and quality of intent on behavior. The research showed that those who participated in the first profile had high positive levels of consequences in comparison to those who participated in the second profile (Sports Psychology).
The findings in this research showed simultaneous application of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation bring about in adult athletes positive benefits. It is important to note extrinsic motivation gets nurtured on a strong and high intrinsic motivation foundation. Lack of high intrinsic motivation may lead athletes to drop out during times of problems such as demotion, non -selection and injury.
Motivation techniques for coaches and athletes
Study by Youth Basketball Coaching Association showed that athletes should get encouraged to set achievable and ambitious long term goals with intention of representing their country in championships that get major in a period of two to four years athletes are most likely to accept awaited challenges and pursue goals with determination if they get empowered to set their goals. Athletes should also set medium term goals to go along with long term goals. Short term goals cannot get forgotten because they are by far the most important and provide checkmarks for athletes. Short term goals keeps athletes focused to attaining the highest performances. Also it is important to monitor and revise goals frequently. Coaches should not get too rigid in approaching set goals. Hence managers and coaches should exercise democracy in time of setting goals especially when they athletes with more experience. Motivational music also gives athletes morale to exercise more and also inspire them. Recovery and work periods get regulated by music. This approach by Ehow (33) helps to increase the output of work and reduce the perceived work exertion; it also improves the pleasure received during the sporting activity. Positive self talk is another technique that can get used to improve motivation in athletes. It utilizes the inner voice of an athlete to improve their self esteem and aspects important to their performance. Self talk is also important and can get done in three ways. The first way is self talk based on relevance to task that focuses on attention of the athletes task on hand. The second is self talk related to moods and impacts the feelings of the athlete. The third type is self affirmation that gets positive. An example of this is Mohammed Ali the legendary boxer who repeatedly said he was the greatest and made believe he was great. The approach of some coaches is to make the athletes follow instructions and this leads to extrinsic motivation (India Matheson, 2014). Excellence in athletics and sports depend so much on adaptation and creativity and it gets developed through intrinsic motivation.
Further studies by University of Athens (2014) have shown that even though many people have adopted intrinsic motivation it is only a few individuals who get intrinsically motivated. Few people getting intrinsically motivated completely means that the control is regulated by interest internally and inbuilt need of participation as well as enjoyment. Self determination theory promotes relatedness and competence, autonomy and positive impact of adaptation. Self determination is closely related to intrinsic motivation. Success is the biggest form of motivation and it brings about a positive reinforcement and an athlete is more likely to repeat the success behavior. A coach can impact desirable behavior in an athlete with positive feedback and praise. Recent trends have shown that too much praise or wrong praise can impact motivation negatively (Jowett, 2014). Fixed mindset regards intelligence as a trait that cannot get unchanged. Individuals with growth mindset show that their abilities can get improved with much effort. Fixed mindset makes athletes to get anxious and a feeling of urgency that makes them to get depressed. Fixed minded athletes are likely to lie or cheat and get defensive. In contrast athletes who get growth minded regard failures as opportunity for learning and not judge their failures. A growth mindset gives athletes persistence and optimism when they face setback. Athletes who get praised for their intelligence develop a fixed mindset. Praising an effort of an athlete creates a growth mindset.
Determinants of intrinsic motivation.
A study by Nanyang Technological University (2014) has shown that the task is a determinant which differs according to intrinsic properties. For example a player may find playing basketball more interesting than running up and down the stairs at the stadium. And hence certain tasks tend to generate different levels of intrinsic motivation that gets situational. Differences and variables in the environment could influence the perception that athletes have on tasks such that even less exciting tasks can get enjoyable. Environment influences motivation because athletes who get monetary reward to play in an activity that is fun, get to spend less time on that activity compared to individuals who do not get rewards if they got involved in a similar activity. When an athlete performs poorly he or she may feel incompetent and can fuel a loss in intrinsic motivation. The impact of environmental deteminants gets mediated by their view on relatedness, autonomy and competence.
A report by States News Service (2014) shows that individual differences determine impact of motivation. Psychologists say that such differences happen because athletes have different respect on the orientations of their motivation. Intrinsic motivation fulfils four needs of an athlete that are primary. The first need is stimulation and fun. Coaches who are wise find unique practice skills that develop motivation to athletes.foe example, a coach may use developmental progressions through creation of challenges that change from being simple to being complex. The coach should stimulate training sessions through implementation of various fun activities. The coach should teach fundamentals important to a game that aim at involving learn skills and enhancing the ability of performances. The coach should also keep every athlete active with an aim of reducing boredom. It is also important that a coach gives athletes permission to engage in a sport to just play without receiving any feedback or evaluation from the assessor or the coach. Intrinsic motivation offers belonging and acceptance as reported by NewsRx Health & Science, 2014). Athletes hope to fulfill their inadequacies through sport and they need to feel accepted and fit in their respective teams. Athletes enjoy participating in sport because they like being part of a team or just being with their friends. Coaches should utilize this tool to motivate their athletes.
Intrinsic motivation gives athletes independence and control of own lives and even of their behavioral course. To increase motivation athletes can build their personal responsibility. Strategies such as decision making through involvement of athletes should get adopted, also athletes should get given choices and should get allowed to give their own contribution. Athletes should be given opportunities to develop a training program of their own and also in evaluation of performances and training sessions. Intrinsic motivation provides success and competence. It involves having positive attitude towards an athlete’s abilities and skills. An athlete does not need to feel like a failure because it may lead to reduced hard work. For example, always getting selected first may give an athlete the feeling of competence, while when an athlete gets selected last may lead decreased motivation. For example Lionel messi said that always being called out by his coach to show his skills developed his intrinsic motivation especially since he was too short and got mocked for his height. Report by Chicago Sun-Times (2014) on a research has indicated that majority of adolescents and children tend to participate in sport because of getting internally motivated compared to external factors.
Assessing intrinsic motivation
The method used frequently to assess intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the use of participants self report. The report by The Saturday Star (2014) showed that research got based on traits; the assessed trait is based on four tasks. Each task targets a component that differs with effectance of motivation. The four tasks are preference for challenge, engagement for mastery, preference for novelty and seeking variation. The methods used in this study used children who were given a required to choose between two options that indicated low or high level of motivation that got effective. The effect of giving rewards has affected intrinsic motivation and has generated attention from sport psychologist and motivational researchers. A report in Daily Herald (2014) has stated research findings found in laboratory, recommended that rewards affect negatively the free choice of behavior. That decrease intrinsic motivation. For the investigations two explanations got offered. the researchers proposed that offering incentive in form of rewards to engage in interesting activities that are in existence already tends to decrease intrinsic motivation as people ultimately begin to feature participation in causes that get external. Secondly rewards decrease intrinsic motivation when alleged through a mechanism through a mechanism that individual behaviors get controlled (Daily Herald, 2014). More recently research conducted has challenged the argument that rewards reduce intrinsic motivation. They have suggested that rewards may play a role of increasing intrinsic motivation when presented because they could serve as a basis of competency and independent action. According to this point of view rewards are not essentially damaging to intrinsic motivation forms.
In an effort to make clear the relationship between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic rewards, series investigations have got undertaken. The initial findings as reported in the (Washington post, 2014) showed that extrinsic rewards were damaging to intrinsic motivation. They challenged that the negative effects brought about by rewards were rare and that rewards got beneficial in motivating behavior when interest on task is low. Another study showed that being praised verbally improved intrinsic motivation and that characteristics of rewards undermined intrinsic motivation considerably. A debate has been about the significance of rewards that get performance contingent on intrinsic motivation. Rewards on performance contingent get defined as those explicitly given due to a well performed task which includes giving incentives in form of money for excellent performances. Deci Edward and Ryan Richard (164) argue that the most damaging reward contingency is when reward is given as a direct reason for the performance. Research on the impact on motivation of scholarships in athletic have shown that athletes with athletic scholarships account on low intrinsic motivation. On the contrary, Smith (154) showed that athlete’s intrinsic motivation got completed during sports where athletic scholarships or resources got limited. Another study by Amorose and Horn (200) showed that intrinsic motivation got higher significantly in athletes who had complete athletic scholarships. This literature is complicated because it did not show any disparity between athletes in non scholarship and scholarships. Male athletes are more extrinsically motivated and this was determined through the research done on sport motivation. This could be because the society has placed a higher expectation on males to perform.
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in sport: Gender analysis
This study as reported by Daily news (2014) supports the hypothesis that continued participation in sports by athletes is due to their initial motivation that got intrinsic and that got moderated by gender. Gender is a societal aspect that affects the lives of all people including the athletes. Gender influences our career paths and interests. Gender differences are present in the world of sport, for example there are studies that have indicated that women are more intrinsically motivated than extrinsic motivation. An athlete with intrinsic or extrinsic motivation helps him or her to predict their adherence and attendance in a particular sport. For example a skier athlete who goes skiing often in weekends for fun is intrinsically motivated while a skier who skies often to better his skills to get more physically or win a reward is extrinsically motivated. The study as reported by Manilla Bulletin (2014) considered the athletes with body related motives that tend to improve physical appearance to get extrinsically motivated. Generally it is believed that when athletes start participating in a specific sport, both intrinsic and extrinsic factors motivate them. It is important to add that some sports get prone to intrinsic motivation than extrinsic motivation. A study conducted on college athletes showed participation in two different physical sports (Tae Kwon Do and Aerobics).the study showed that the participants would show differences on reasons for participating respective sports. On body related motives, the aerobics participants would get more focus than Tae Kwon Do. Tae kwon do participants rated competence and enjoyment motives and illustrating that participating in different sports draw different motivation types.
Gender analysis in sports motivation
This study got conducted with a hypothesis supporting that women are less competitive in sports compared to men. This is because most women were said to participate in sports for fun and to get to be with their friends. Best performing athletes have always shown high levels of extrinsic motivation than intrinsic motivation. Gender differences in elite athletes showed little difference because earlier studies had shown that women and young children often display intrinsic motivation. Elite athletes with a history of winning medals had high levels of extrinsic motivation while athletes who had not won any medal before showed elevated levels of intrinsic motivation. A distinction got made that athletes with a mindset of winning medals and titles were those who participated in sports to receive rewards as quoted by (Edwards, 2014). This result also showed the majority of women athletes participated in given sports for fun. It is impotent to state that majority of this studies conducted had high number samples of men compared to women. A study got conducted on the adherence of exercise and was supposed to look at high performance prediction and discontinuation in sports based on various characteristics of motives. The hypothesis of the study stated that athletes who discontinued participation in a specific sport did so because they were restrained sport performers. Hence athletes with low performance discontinued their sport s participation. Previous study by ( Deci and Ryan 110) showed that athletes who did not fulfill their extrinsic needs got no motivation to continue with sport participation. However moderate performance showed they enjoyed the sport and being in company of friends. In short they continued participation due to intrinsic motives.
Motivation in athletes has been affected by doping challenges
Doping gets associated with sport that is professional, however doping is not done only by athletes who are extrinsically motivated but also by those who are intrinsically motivated. In the past decades majority of athletes have been stripped of medals due to doping allegations and doping has stretched for a long time. Athletes who engage in doping have enhancement of certain physical activities. Doping behavior gets affected by intentions and attitudes of an individual. Hager (124) in his study showed that athletes in non professional sports also engage in doping and this does not translate to cheating because they do not expect any rewards but personal satisfaction. Intrinsic motivation has got correlations strong towards enjoying athletics, improving performance and living healthy lifestyles while extrinsic motivation has been associated with doping allegations. So far there is no study that has helped to link correlations to sport that can assist trainers and coaches to identify behaviors that get unhealthy. Miller (65) in his study states that orientation to task has protective factors against behaviors that lead to doping and body image. Medical and psychological researchers have used urine, gene or blood test to deter athletes from using drugs and detecting them in athletes system. A recent example of an athlete who has faced doping allegations is Lance Armstrong. He had his titles and medals stripped. He has been accused of using drugs to enhance his performance. Many athletes will go to any length to have a competitive edge over their rivals. Sponsors, fans and coaches can have high expectations towards athletes and require them to break records and require them to perform in sports like super humans. Frequently such allegations are unrealistic creates pressure in them to perform. Athletes already in upper categories according to performance are perfectionist and doping to them necessary and not justified. Peer pressure has made athletes feel like they cannot keep up with their rivals if they do not dope. Peer pressure in athletes does not need to come directly but their trainers, coaches and physicians may get involved in doping.
Hager (97) continued to state that financial gain in most athletes comes from sponsorships and not necessarily from sports. Majority of athletes spend a lot of money to pay their coaches, gyms and trainers and often get into debt when developing their status and performance. Winning competitions and breaking records is one way by which athletes get better sponsorship contracts and deals. Hence to many athletes is a way of coming out of debt and gaining financial security. Secrecy has made many athletes to get away with doping even after getting regularly for drug use. The risk to engage in doping may appear worth especially when an athlete is under a lot pressure. They believe they can outsmart mechanisms of testing especially in a world where stakes are very high. Edwards (85) says in his study that although the values and beliefs may get influenced if an athlete will get to use substances that are banned in sport because very little is acknowledged about the attitudes of elite athletes. Controlling doping by use of tests is not enough, there need to be a change in attitudes that get monitored often. Drug testing alone can fail as it has repeatedly done in the few decades. Education is very important when it comes to curbing doping because elite athletes include coaches family other athletes and their support family. The relationships in elite athlete can help reduce doping behavior. Favorable attitudes on doping should get changed to unfavorable ones. Athletes should also get taught on how to resist pressure to participate in doping, it may also help to reduce intentions to participate even with athletes that have a history of doping. It important that athletes take courses that have forums discussing doping related cases and engage in informative platforms in the internet that are welcome to athletes and their coaches. Task orientation due to extrinsic motivation has increased when compared to ego orientation, because the attitudes related to doping have become favorable. Updated list of acceptable medicines and their supplements should get provided because some athletes like Carl Lewis blamed steroids found in his sample urine as traces from a cold medicine he had been taking.
Conclusion
Athletes get intrinsic motivation to pursue circumstances that get to satisfy their psychological needs that are basic. To support this reference, a study done by Edwards (98) said that pleasure is mastering, gaining efficiency or competence, assimilation and experiencing action for basic facts in life. Rewards are powerful tools of motivation in cases where there is lack of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation can weaken or strengthen intrinsic motivation. Situations that weaken intrinsic motivation in athletes are those that the extrinsic rewards tend to control the athletes behavior. Extrinsic rewards tend to provide negative information towards the ability of an athlete and are not directly connected to behavior that is specific. To increase intrinsic motivation, giving a reward shows to increase the athlete’s ability positively. The most important factor is intrinsic motivation because even when rewards are not present an athlete can engage in sports. However, both intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation work together most of the times to improve the performance of an athlete (Edwards 90).
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