Designed by Joseph Paxman in 1851 to accommodate the Great Exhibition that features the technological and cultural advancement from different parts of the world for the enjoyment of the English people (Phillips 14).
The architecture of The Crystal Palace was dubbed as the “modern English” since the structure was an unusually simple and the lack of ornamentation, the unity, and functionality of the designs reinforce and stabilized the entire glass roofs and walls covering it and allowing the rays of the sunlight to penetrate within the building (Phillips 24-25).
The whole building was also a rejection of traditional materials used in architecture; Paxman’s inventiveness prompted him to utilize the latest technology of mass produced cheap glass panels and cast iron as the base materials for the whole building. Thus, neglecting the use of concrete cement, a material used throughout in buildings for centuries.
Paxman's Crystal building grounds had 1,851 ft. long x 456 ft. wide parallelogram base. The 408 ft. x 72 ft. transept divided the middle of the structure at exact right angles. The walls’ height were 24 ft. high and the second walls rose about 20 ft. lesser than the first set thereby creating a great wide nave of 72ft. The upper galleries of the palace has a measurement of 217,100 sq. ft. whilst the ground level had a total of 772,784 sq.; As a whole, The Crystal Palace had a grand cubic contents of 33,000,000 ft. (A Guide to the Great Exhibition 18-19).
The Crystal Palace had wide galleries opened for both exhibitors and businessmen. For instance, the galleries housed many different types of relics from the past and were divided into different ‘courts’ to emphasize the culture as well as the period setting for the relics. Here are only of the few artifacts housed within the courts of Crystal Palace: Greco-Roman arts, Egyptian arts, Renaissance period, Assyrian artifacts, European medieval period arts, and the technology and natural arts department that showcased the majestic flora and fauna, and the latest in the Victorian era technology. Business thrived during the Great Exhibit and the palace administration organized numerous merchants to cater hoards of visitors by selling snacks and refreshments (A Guide to the Great Exhibition 45).
During the Victorian period, the prices just for a single admission tickets to the palace varies with gender: for men, it costs £3.3s while ladies can afford it for only £2.2s. Tickets are sold per season and non-transferrable to anyone (A Guide to the Great Exhibition 43). Sadly in 21st century London, the once highly admired palace has been forgotten due to its tragic destruction by fire in 1936 and local authorities demolished the remaining parts in World War II (Encyclopedia Britannica, Crystal Palace).
Sainte-Genevieve Library, Paris, France (c. 1838-1850)
This magnificent French Library located in the busy city of Paris combines the delightful Renaissance style on the outside while the interiors reflect the Byzantine style with its tall arches and intersecting domes; rows of slender columns and more arches gives the reading room an ambience of medievalism amidst the modern book shelves, lights, and people.
Created and designed by Henri Labrouste from 1838 up to the 1850s to using a combination of concrete, reinforced iron and glass panels. Throughout the years, Labrouste style created a library that retained the purpose of “temple of knowledge,” yet his building adapts to the modern styles of the buildings nearby Paris (World Public Library, Sainte-Genevieve Library).
The exterior of the library resembled the Italian house designs of the Medici-Riccardi. Straight and with minimal designs on arched windows only decorated with iron glass window sills. The inside architecture is a combination of Byzantine style of Hagia Sophia. For instance, the drawings presented by the Museum of the Modern Art in New York illustrated the organized domes arranged tightly that allowed the creation of a central dome on the middle and branching out to create more domes of similar design (Kim and Malmgren, Henri Labrouste’s “Precision and Liberty”).
Decorated wrought iron trusses lavishly adorned the whole structure to serve as reinforcements or backbone for the entire building.
According to Labrouste, architecture must be in harmony with “precision and liberty.” Precision meant that artist must be able determine the building calculations and make accurate decisions for measurements to avoid the collapse of the structure; furthermore, the liberty he stated meant the ability to explore and challenge the existence of new materials which can be used to improve the building’s structure and aesthetic presentation (Kim and Malmgren, Henri Labrouste’s “Precision and Liberty”).
The library was a brilliant combination of Classical and modernist styles; simple yet elegant without the clutter of excessive ornamentations. The current library consists of a total of 2 million documents acquired from the St. Genevieve Abbey. Notable scholars such as Dadaist Marcel Duchamp and James Joyce were only two of the library’s readers in the early 20th century (World Public Library, Sainte-Genevieve Library).
The Red House, London, UK (c.1859)
The plan for the Red House was initially made in 1858 by William Morris, Phillip Webb, and Charles Faulkner during their trip to the Seine River. In 1859, the contract to build a manorial house was given to Morris and Webb (London Borough of Bexley, The Story of William Morris and the Red House).
The Victorian Era was a period that loved clutter and focused on more ornamental designs. The architecture of the Victorian England remained corrupted with too much ornamentation which did not worked at all except for aesthetic purposes only. The goal of Morris was to build a house beyond the hustle and bustle of the city with a simple yet medieval ambience (London Borough of Bexley, The Story of William Morris and the Red House).
Morris loved to have his property erected in the lush surroundings of the English countryside and for this reason alone, he visited many counties and examined the sites before decided to purchase a property in a small town of Upton (London Borough of Bexley, The Story of William Morris and the Red House).
Morris decision to choose Upton rather than other places was the fact that Upton was a small and quite separated farmland during the Victorian period. In other words, this town was separated to the city and other nearby villages. This was the reason that prompted Morris to acquire this since he liked his property to have a medieval setting and Upton was the perfect place to start the project (London Borough of Bexley, The Story of William Morris and the Red House).
The structure of the Red House was made from deep red bricks and the walls from dark red tiles. There was no sufficient information about the origins of the bricks (London Borough of Bexley, The Story of William Morris and the Red House).
Today, the Red House stands majestically in the quaint old town of Upton gazing upon the modern place with an open invitation to the tourists to come and peek inside its interiors. This architecture combines the best of the Renaissance and created a fairy-tale like manor.
The Glasgow School of Art, Scotland, UK (c.1897-1909)
According to Macaulay, before the construction the iconic Glasgow School of Art in Scotland, its famous architect named Charles Rennie Mackintosh was one of the junior architects working in Honeyman and Keppie Architectural Firm. But in 1896, the contract to design a structure meant for educational purposes was awarded to the firm (cited from Yau, Glasgow School of Art).
Mackintosh was the assigned architect to design the structure since it was because of the creative he designs he submitted to the firm. Sir Francis Newberry, the director of the firm, was the person who supported Mackintosh in designing the structure and it was due to his recommendation that Mackintosh became the architect of the building despite his junior level (Yau, Glasgow School of Art).
In 1897, the firm started to construct the building and in 1909, the building was opened to the public. The success of the Glasgow School Art created an impact to Mackintosh’s life by making him one of the most highly sought modernist architects (Yau, Glasgow School of Art).
Mackintosh’s simplistic style can be seen in the building. Unlike the Victorian and its predecessor styles, the Glasgow School of Art can be considered as a modernist style in a sense that it does not use any ornamentation aside from the clear glass panels and wrought iron gates.
According to Nuttgens, Mackintosh pioneered the European Modernism because of his architectural style which rejected the Baroque and Romantic period craving for intense designs and reverted back to the simple designs by combining “Japanese elementsScottish Baronial design as well as Art Nouveau decorative elements” (cited from Yau, Glasgow School of Art).
The presence of large glass paneled windows made it possible to utilize the natural lighting from the sun.
The Robie House (c.1910)
The Robie House is another example of Modernist architecture of the 21st century that do not use ornamentation aside from simple house interior designs.
Frank Lloyd Wright created the design for his client Frederick C. Robie; many experts agreed that the house was the most beautiful of all the Prairie designs.
The interior of the house were mostly made up of earth toned pigments such as fuschia for walls, dark oak colors for the columns, and the wrought iron steel is the only ornament that adorns the simple straight cut windows.
Wide spaces are achieved and the ceilings also have the similar designs and colors like the walls and windows. The rows of large windows arranged alternately on the walls provide an access to natural lighting which means that there is a minimal need for gas lighting in the house due to its lighter and cozy ambience.
“Doors and windows of leaded glass line the room, flooding the interior with light. Iridescent, colored and clear glass composed in patterns of flattened diamond shapes and diagonal geometries evoke floral forms, while subtly echoing the plan and form of the building. In his design of the Robie House, Wright achieves a dynamic balance between transparency and enclosure, blurring the boundaries between interior space and the world of nature beyond” (Frank Lloyd Wright Trust, Frederick C. Robie House).
The house was owned by different people aside from Mr. Robie and for many years it served as a “dormitory, office, classroom, and refectory” before the American Institute of Architects honored it in 1991 as America’s pioneer examples of modernist style (Frank Lloyd Wright Trust, Frederick C. Robie House).
Rietveld Schröder House (c.1924)
In 1924, the Dutch architect Gerrit Thomas Rietveld created the style of the Rietveld Schröder House for his client Truus Schrader.
“The house is in many ways unique. It is the only building of its type in Rietveld’s output, and it also differs from other significant buildings of the early modern movement, such as the Villa Savoye by Le Corbusier or the Villa Tugendhat by Mies van der Rohe. The difference lies in particular in the treatment of architectural space and in the conception of the functions of the building. Many contemporary architects were deeply influenced by the Schröder house and this influence has endured up to the present” (UNESCO, Rietveld Schröderhuis).
The house was constructed in the city’s busiest roads therefore making it as one of the structures that presented the world the urban style design of the 21st century with its clear minimalistic windows, two story design, and the inclusion of the balcony with protective iron railings for recreational enjoyment or watching the downtown.
The interior of the house consists of large paneled windows made of clear tempered glass; two colors dominate the structure which is mostly black and white with occasional addition of colors from furniture.
The design of this house offers functionality for users. For instance, the traditional house has a separate living room and bedroom. In the case of Rietveld Schröder House, the large space is divided using detachable partitions just like in Japanese houses so that the other space can be used as a living room in the mornings and bedrooms in the evenings (Central Museum, Rietveld Schröder House).
“The Rietveld Schröderhuis was located on the edge of the city of Utrecht close to the countryside, at the end of a 20th century row of houses. It was built against the wall of the adjacent brick house. The area beyond the house remained undeveloped, because it contained 19th century Dutch defence lines, which were still in use at the time” (UNESCO, Rietveld Schröderhuis).
The Barcelona Pavilion (c.1929)
Mies van der Rohe designed the structure in 1929 and was originally named as ‘German Pavilion’ to showcase Germany’s attempts to create its image to the world as a country embracing the Modernist culture.
“The pavilion’s design is based on a formulaic grid system developed by Mies that not only serves as the patterning of the travertine pavers, but it also serves as an underlying framework that the wall systems work within. By raising the pavilion on a plinth in conjunction with the narrow profile of the site, the Barcelona Pavilion has a low horizontal orientation that is accentuated by the low flat roof that appears to float over both the interior as well as the exterior” (Kroll, AD Classics: Barcelona Pavilion / Mies van der Rohe).
The pavilion embodies what Corbusier had stated in his book, Towards a New Architecture that a primary purpose of the building is to preserve and at the same time must be free from the corruption of design that emerged from the Baroque and Romantic periods.
The interiors were mostly clear; walls had a smooth marble-like texture and appearance. Tall large windows allowed the passage of the sunlight throughout the whole house and the spacious interiors of the house are divided by glass paneled doors.
No ornamentation can be seen on the house. The only decoration inside was a small sculpture of a naked woman modeled after the Greek sculptures of the past.
One of the main focal points of the pavilion is the clear pool that reflects the whole building onto its clear waters.
Austrian Postal Savings Bank (c.1904)
The Austrian architect Otto Wagner designed the Austrian Postal Savings Bank in 1904 and his style combining neo-classicism and minimalistic styles made the work as one of the iconic buildings of the 20th century.
The structure utilized the latest technological advancement of mass produced steel, glass, and cement. Glass panels occupied the rest of the windows and branching towards the roof; repeating the same design on the other side.
The roof embodies a semi-dome like style arch. The glass panels above allow the passage of sunlight to the interiors of the buildings.
The floors were simple grey marbled tiles of grey, black, and white. Yet despite the simplicity, the design was quite elegant and modern at the same time. Walls echoed pure white colors and tall slender columns were distributed in various strategic locations to support the structure.
The lack of walls on the center as well as on the sides created large spaces such as the side aisles and a central path directly under the glass nave of the dome.
“The building’s harmonious synthesis of form and function was a remarkable breakthrough for the spirit of modernism. In Wagner’s own words, “The whole basis of the views of architecture prevailing today must be displaced by the recognition that the only possible point of departure for our artistic creation is modern life” (Mindel, The Architect’s Eye: Architect Otto Wagner’s Modernist Marvels in Vienna).
The Modernist period began in the mid-to the latter part of the 19th century and this philosophy was represented in arts and architecture. It is a style that is always conflicting with the traditional norms in the society and most especially in arts. Unlike the Baroque and the Romantic period whose art styles characterized by the opulent inclusions of non-functional ornaments to the architecture for the sake of aesthetic satisfaction; the Modernist period was the counterpart of the corrupt Baroque period. Modernism paved the way towards the liberation of mankind from the rigid social hierarchy and expanded the people’s taste for unique and creativeness in arts. While the traditional fine arts cannot be disregarded, the modernists rejected the excess of visual aesthetics and welcomed the path towards the scientific building of structures based from reason and logic. According to Matei Calinescu: “At some point during the first half of the nineteenth century an irreversible split occurred between modernity as a stage in the history of Western civilization—a product of scientific and technological progress, of the industrial revolution, of the sweeping economic and social changes brought about by capitalism—and modernity as an aesthetic concept. Since then, the relations between the two modernities [sic] have been irreducibly hostile, but not without allowing and even stimulating a variety of mutual influences in their rage for each other’s destruction” (qtd. from Heynen 10-11).
In a way, the Modernist retained the philosophy of the Renaissance because of its adherence to the traditional styles of the Greco-Roman civilizations, yet this style does not implement the opulent decadence in its buildings. What makes the Modernist period the pre-cursor of the 21st century art styles was the fact that architects during this period utilized many different materials such as concrete reinforced with wrought iron steel; an addition of large tall windows to permeate the sunlight into the room, the lack of excessive ornamentation and paintings inside the modernist houses, and the combination of styles borrowed from different cultures. The notion of Modernism was widely used throughout literature as a reference to the styles that prevailed during the latter part of the 19th century up to the dawn of the 20th century. Architects such as Le Corbusier strongly followed this style as his model for his architecture projects. Another pioneer of the Modernist period was the Bauhaus School of Architecture whose main goal was to separate and put a variable distinction towards fine arts that were made for aesthetic purposes from its other counterpart which is the applied arts which introduced the importance of functionality of the design. For instance, an example of this design was Gropius’ Bauhaus Building in Dessau, Germany. It was the style that pre-dates the modernism in Europe. One of the features of the style used in the building was the absolute purity; purity in style meant that no other colors were used in the structure aside from light grey tones contrasting the white paints surrounding it. This building differs from the styles of the late Victorian and from its counterparts because it challenged the architects to explore and use other methods of building structures through the application of the current technological advancements such as metal (e.g. reinforced steel, wrought iron bars for railings, window sills, doors, and the gates. And these traits were represented by the Bauhaus because the building was made from “The building consists of an asphalt tiled roof, steel framework, and reinforced concrete bricks to reduce noise and protect against the weather. In addition, a glass curtain wall – a feature that would come to be typical of modernist architecture - allows in ample quantities of light” (The Art Story, Bauhaus). As a conclusion, Modernism was a rebellion towards the decadent arts that prevailed the previous centuries and its influence in art has been continuously expanding as more and more experts’ model their works from the old masters who proposed the style.
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