Abstract
Historical events have an impact on the lives of people living at the time, and those residing in the future. They also contribute to the evolution of societies in terms of their structure, attitudes, and preparedness for similar occurrences in the years to come. These events can be social, political, technological, economic, and ecological in nature. Nevertheless, one event can touch all these facets on either a minor or major scale. This paper explores some of the events that shaped human history, and their impacts on modern policymaking. The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 revolutionized the way industrialized nations operate nuclear plants and store radioactive wastes. The sinking of the Titanic in 1912 prompted technological changes in ship design and pioneered maritime safety regulations. The landing of man on the moon yielded significant scientific information on the origin and evolution of the solar system that plays an integral part in contemporary education systems. Lastly, the Nazi Holocaust taught humanity the consequences of pervasive racial discrimination and ethnocentrism. These events are just a few of the numerous progressive and regressive incidences that touched the lives of people. The bottom-line, however, is that these incidents hold crucial lessons for successive generations regardless of whether they are negative or positive.
Introduction
The history of human civilization is awash with significant events that shaped the lifestyle, beliefs, and attitudes of both the ancient and contemporary societies. These events had many facets including technological, social, political, cultural, and ecological components. While these events occurred decades or even centuries ago, their physical and psychological ramifications still reverberate today in both their countries of origin and the global scene. Examples range from severe catastrophes such as the Chernobyl accident to technological advancements such as the first landing on the moon. Other than recording such incidents for future reference, history also offers vital lessons that inform current and future decision-making by relevant policymakers in areas such as economics, environmental conservation, and crisis management. Some of these events also serve as stepping stones for technological, ideological, and social progress that benefit society. This paper, therefore, examines some these events by explicating their causes, their impacts on the world at the time, and their lingering effects on society today.
The Chernobyl nuclear accident of 1986
The Chernobyl disaster of 1986 went down in history as the only known accident in the commercial nuclear power sector leading to severe radiation-related fatalities. The cause of the accident was a flawed reactor design run operated by poorly skilled personnel, coupled with the absence of safety culture. At least 5% of the radioactive reactor core found its way into the atmosphere and downwind through the resulting steam explosion and fires. The Chernobyl nuclear power plant occupies about 130 km of land lying to the north of Kiev in Ukraine and stretches to about 20 km to the south of its border with Belarus (World Nuclear Association, 2015). The plant contained four nuclear reactors while two additional ones were under construction when the accident occurred. An artificial lake, fed by the river Pripyat, provided cooling water for the reactors. On the day of the disaster, reactor workers carried out a series of actions on the reactors during a routine turbine test, including disabling all automatic shutdown mechanisms. This action, together with the flawed design of the control rods destabilized the conditions in the reactor, hindering efforts by the operators to shut it down. A power surge in the reactor caused scalding fuel to interact with the cooling water, leading to fuel fragmentation, rapid steam production, and a surge in pressure (World Nuclear Association, 2015). The intense pressure detached the cover plate of the reactor, ruptured the fuel channels, jammed all control rods, spread out to the whole core, and eventually caused a series of explosions that released radioactive components such as hot graphite, to the atmosphere for about ten days.
Among those who died from the blast and radiation poisoning included 30 operators and firefighters (World Nuclear Association, 2015). About 134 people involved with the clean-up suffered from acute radiation syndrome. Some of these people died within a few weeks after radiation exposure while other died within the next 20 years. Increased cases of thyroid cancers attributed to the intake of radioactive cesium and iodine exist today. The environmental damage stemmed from the xenon gas, radioactive iodine-131 and caesium-137, dust, and debris that extended over Ukraine, Russia, Belarus, and some extent of Europe and Scandinavia (World Nuclear Association, 2015). The government relocated more than 200,000 people living in of Pripyat and within a 30-kilometer radius of the town.
The accident prompted significant changes in the safety culture of Ukrainians and the operation of the industry in industrialized nations operating nuclear power plants. Through massive contributions from international donors and foreign governments, Ukraine managed to rebuild the facility using reliable designs and fortified material, and implemented appropriate and safe storage of used fuels and radioactive materials. Modifications to overcome the flaws of the RBMK reactors included the addition of neutron absorbers and the increase of fuel enrichment from 1.8% to 2.4% (World Nuclear Association, 2015). Thus, the control rods are more stable today while under low power. Efforts to reclaim and resettle contaminated zones continues today. The designers also speeded up the automatic shut-down mechanisms and installed automated inspection equipment. In the global scene, international programs such as review projects by the International Atomic Energy Agency sprung up after the accident. These projects provide platforms for operators and engineers from Western countries to discuss and adopt safety and technological improvements on nuclear power plants. The international community also adopted the Convention on Nuclear Safety in 1994.
The sinking of the Titanic in 1912
Built in the early nineteenth century by Wolff and Harland of Belfast, the Titanic was the largest ship of its time (Bassett, 1998). It was a White Star Line steamship of almost 900 feet long, more than 25 stories high, and 46,000 tons in weight (Bassett, 1998). Due to the watertight compartments in its lower sections, most people deemed the ship unsinkable. On its first and only voyage at sea – April 14, 1912 – the ship collided with a massive iceberg at sea while on its way to the United States. While its builders predicted that the ship could stay afloat for two to three days after the worst possible accident, Titanic took only less than three hours to sink. The collision damaged almost 300 feet of the hull of the ship, causing flooding in the sixteen watertight compartments. Out of more than 2200 crew and passengers, only 705 survived (Bassett, 1998). Other than the collision, Titanic had material failures and design flaws that contributed to its rapid sinking. First, the brittle fracture of the hull steel failed to withstand the impact of the collision with the iceberg. Tests conducted on the recovered remains of the hull steel showed high levels of sulphur and oxygen, indicating that the builders used low-carbon steel made under semi-kiln conditions (Bassett, 1998). Second, the rivets that connected the hull plates to the main structure of the ship were sheared off as the iceberg scraped along a section of the hull. Besides, the tremendous force arising from the impact caused the rivet heads to pop off, thus opening up more seams. Third, weaknesses in the design of the sixteen watertight compartments included open tops that rose only a few feet above the waterline. The damage to the hull of six compartments caused water to leak into the other intact compartments when the bow of the ship pitched forward.
After the accident, several changes in ship design and safety regulations came into force. The White Star Line company and other shipbuilders included changes such as taller bulkheads and double hulls (Bassett, 1998). Taller bulkheads aimed at preventing water from damaged compartments from leaking into adjacent ones when a ship began to pitch forward after taking in water through the damaged bow compartments. In this case, flooding in the damaged sections could be isolated and controlled. On the other hand, the double hulls meant to strengthen the sides of the ship by preventing damage to the inner wall in case the outer wall sustains damage from an impact with an object such as an iceberg at sea. Moreover, the watertight compartments will not sustain any damage. Another effect of the accident was the institution of stricter safety standards governing ships at sea through the Convention on Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) of 1948 (Bassett, 1998). These regulations included minimum lifeboat capacities, development of ice patrol, and mandatory use of electronic communication. The requirements increased the number of lifeboats to accommodate all passengers on the ship. Wireless communication aimed at facilitating emergency calls during moments of distress, checking geographical positions at sea and receiving weather reports. Lastly, the US government started ice patrolling the North Atlantic to alert ships traveling between the US and England of any approaching ice fields (Bassett, 1998). These patrols still exist today under the jurisdiction of the modern Coast Guard, which issues annual alerts from February to July (Bender, 2010). SOLAS standards affect current maritime activities such as radios and life jackets. A United Nations agency called the International Maritime Organization also issues safety standards today (Bender, 2010).
The landing of man on the moon
The solar system has always fascinated humanity since antiquity. Theories ranging from superstitions to erroneous scientific conclusions abounded in the past as people tried to explain the intricacies of heavenly bodies such as the moon, the sun, and other planets. Early visitations to the moon comprised the use of robotic machines and later culminated into moon landings by astronauts. Examples of such devices included the Sputnik 1 in 1957, and the Luna 1 and 3 in 1959 (Spudis, 2008). While these machines generated poor quality images, they also provided pertinent insight into the nature of the moon surface. The space age finally arrived with the creation of the Apollo program by President John F. Kennedy with the aim of safely landing and departing humans from the lunar surface. After mapping the whole moon surface and obtaining extremely high-resolution images of possible landing sites through robotic missions, the program certified the safety of subsequent missions. Therefore, in 1969, Apollo 11 took flight and landed the first humans on the moon albeit under a harrowing descent (Spudis, 2008). The world watched with bated breaths as the ship took off from the earth surface. The astronauts on board the spaceship were Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin, who landed on the Mare Tranquillitalis dubbed the ‘Sea of Tranquility’ (Spudis, 2008). The scientists walked on the moon for more than two hours, collecting samples of rocks and soil. The mission was a success as it provided insight into the similarities between the mood and the earth, and the interconnectedness of the universe.
Since then other astronauts have been visited the moon in subsequent Apollo missions including Alan Bean and Pete Conrad (Spudis, 2008). These explorations revolutionized planetary science by outlining the lunar history, and explaining the origin and evolution of planets. New theories that emerged from these missions still apply today and form the basis of scientific studies in education systems around the world. Furthermore, the wealth of information on the chemical composition of rocks samples from the moon shed light on the evolution of life on earth. For instance, similarities between the composition of the rock samples and those from Mexico imply that impact that caused the extinction of dinosaurs came from the collision between a giant lunar rock and the earth surface (Spudis, 2008). In contrast to past explorations where countries organized separate missions, modern missions commonly involve cooperation among developed countries such as the US, Russia, and China. The NASA plans to send astronauts to the moon in the next few years to make global maps and explore its mysterious polar regions (Spudis, 2008).
The Nazi Holocaust
The Holocaust involved mass killings of millions of Jews and other minority groups in Nazi Germany since 1945. Nazi leader Adolf Hitler instigated this massacre on the basis that Jews were an inferior race that threatened the racial purity of the Germans (History, n.d.). Even though anti-Semitism existed in Europe long before Hitler’s rise to power, the Holocaust brought these discriminatory sentiments to light. The roots of anti-Semitic views of Hitler traces back to early 1900 after the defeat of Germany during World War 1. He blamed the Jews causing the German defeat. Through his membership with the Nazis or the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP), Hitler ascended to power in 1934 (History, n.d.). He used his position and influence to promote anti-Semitism through propaganda and realignment of social institutions and education systems along racial lines. His primary goals of spatial expansion and racial purity led to the persecution of political opponents and creation of concentration camps for the detainment of Jews, communists, and social democrats. The government committed various atrocities against the Jews such as dismissing them from public service, liquidating their businesses, stripping professionals such as doctors of their clients, and burning their synagogues. Other populations considered impure were the disabled and the mentally challenges, who also faced extermination. About 275,000 physically challenged people and 70,000 mentally unfit patients were gassed to death between 1939 and 1940 (History, n.d.). By 1945, death camps that acted as mass killing grounds abounded in Nazi Germany, killing 12,000 Jews per day (History, n.d.).
Other than the death of millions of Jews, psychological trauma impaired those who survived the horrors of their incarceration. Williams (1993) describes this trauma as survivor’s syndrome, characterized by pervasive depression, persevering guilt, somatization, anxieties and agitations, and personality changes. Unprecedented numbers of refugees moved across Europe after fleeing from their homes in Nazi Germany. The effects of the Holocaust still resound today. Currently, the Jewish presence in Europe is almost non-existent. Those that remain prefer assimilation through intermarriages with non-Jews and the abandonment of Judaism. The modern focus for Jewish identity today is Israel. Organizations such as the WARGO (Warsaw Ghetto Uprising Organization) commemorate the Holocaust on specific dates to remember those who died (Williams, 1993). Holidays such as the Yom Hashoah (Day of Remembering) and Yom Hagvurah (i.e. the Day of Heroism) for mourning their past suffering and celebrating their survival respectively (Williams, 1993). Overall, the Germans are stuck with a bitter legacy of propagating the harshest form of human persecution ever witnessed in the world.
Conclusion
Events have the ability to exact positive or negative changes in both the past and present societies. Disasters that affect millions of people such as the Holocaust, the Chernobyl nuclear explosion and the sinking of the Titanic prompt people to reevaluate what they hold dear and make informed choices about their lifestyles. For governments and other policymakers, a radical shift in their decision-making criteria is needed regarding macro-factors such as safety, racial discrimination, and technological progress. Such actions speed up healing, foster global cooperation, and forges close social ties. Conversely, positive events such as the landing of man on the moon spur imagination and innovation in individuals. This creativity and confidence in one’s abilities are the cornerstones of modern progress in knowledge, technology, and ideologies. Therefore, humanity should always evaluate the causes and effects of major events to discover the lessons that are vital to its survival.
References
Bassett, V. (1998). Causes and Effects of the Rapid Sinking of the Titanic. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://writing.engr.psu.edu/uer/bassett.html
Bender, D. (2010, April 14). How the sinking of the Titanic changed the world. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://coastguard.dodlive.mil/2010/04/how-the-sinking-of-the-titanic-changed-the-world/
History. (n.d.). The Holocaust - World War II - HISTORY.com. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/the-holocaust
Spudis, P. D. (2008, August 6). NASA - Lunar Exploration: Past and Future. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://www.nasa.gov/50th/50th_magazine/lunarExploration.html
Williams, S. S. (1993). Impact of the Holocaust on Survivors and their Children. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://www.sandrawilliams.org/HOLOCAUST/holocaust.html
World Nuclear Association. (2015). Chernobyl Accident 1986| World Nuclear Association. Retrieved April 17, 2016, from http://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/safety-and-security/safety-of-plants/chernobyl-accident.aspx
