Dualism is a teaching that regarding the explanation of things that bases on the existence of two opposite origins - the material and spiritual ones. In its most developed form, dualism is represented in the teaching of Rene Descartes in his philosophy of the New Age. The features of matter cannot be derived from thinking, and vice versa, they do not have any points of contact. Indeed, Descartes is widely considered as the true founder of dualism, though the previous works of such philosophers of Plato and Thomas Aquinas introduced similar concepts regarding the ambivalent nature of things. In this connection, it is important to analyze the essence of Descartes' positions to find out the radical differences from the theories introduced by other contributors to the teaching of dualism.
Considering the solution of the primary issues of philosophy, Descartes appears the representative of dualism, in which materialistic and ideal origins are regarded starting points. With that, Descartes was a materialist in his physics, i.e. matter and motion appears sufficient for the explanation of everything that concerns nature. Indeed, as stated by Descartes, with matter and motion he could demonstrate the arrangement of the Universe, which meant that there is no necessity for any divine power and God. However, the explanation of the essence of human-beings and the soul also required an immaterial soul and God (Rozemond 129-156). The activity of the human soul, according to Descartes, cannot be explained via mechanical principles (Cunning 277-296). With that, these very principle were the basis of any scientific explanation. Hence, the peculiarity of the human soul and its activity, intellection, consists of the fact that the latter is absolutely flexible. Descartes agrees that the human soul can adopt any kind of content and adapt to any available form of reality, which if fact represents its specific character. Thus, the soul represents a special immaterial formation, a spiritual substance of a divine origin, since no other material formation cannot have similar features.
In this connection, Descartes introduces a clear distinction between the two possible origins of universal phenomena. However, his approach proves radically different from that of Plato. The world of ideas is neither the object of fantasy or dreams nor Plato's artifice. In their essence, things are always ambivalent despite whether or not we observe this ambivalence. Unlike Descartes, Plato's philosophy proclaims this ambivalence as the object of thought, i.e. it became conscious. The world of ideas, therefore, can be called the philosophical discovery of Plato. Captured and inspired by this discovery, Plato attempts to extremely expand and develop this ambivalence, make it completely clear, evident and tangible. As a result, the difference between ideas and things become a sensitive, a physical one; the world of ideas appears not only ambivalent and contradictory, but also torn apart. This point of Plato's philosophy witnesses a metamorphosis that the philosopher cannot control. Hence, from one world he gets two worlds, each externally and sensually different. However, unlike Descartes' separation, this circumstance makes the two worlds identical. The difference emphasized by Plato suddenly appears to be oneness and proves to be just an illusory difference. Basing on this case, however, one should properly evaluate the deepness of this criticism posed by Plato towards the dualism of things and ideas (Vogel 159-167, 178-184). This criticism believes Plato on bare word and confuses in the same theories that bewilder Plato. Here comes the conclusion, therefore, that things and ideas in his philosophy merely repeat each other, and there is no real difference between them, which represents Plato as being an insufficient dualist who did not develop his own principle.
Perhaps, Plato's philosophy is also dualism, but not between things and ideas, but between the identity and difference that permeates them. It is Plato's dualism that makes both identity and difference equally untrue, and their dialectics appear illusory, merely a reflection of the true dialectics (Vogel 159-167, 178-184). Therefore, it is wrong to consider Plato's philosophy as merely idealism. Although Plato regards things as ideas, he regards ideas as things. He is constantly at odds with himself; Plato is a materialistic idealist. Unlike Descartes investigation of the profound origin of universal phenomena, Plato's philosophy merely touches the surface of existence, not getting into its inwardness, whereupon it is represents only an apparition of philosophy.
Hence, Descartes' individualism appears a largely improved and developed version of old principles introduced by Plato, with Descartes presenting the spirit as the self-sufficient basis (Rozemond 129-156). This conclusion is the main Descartes' merit and the main content of his philosophy. He was the first who separated the spirit from matter and endowed it with a positive definition. The immateriality of the spirit depicted by Plato appeared solely a negative definition of thinking. The position was further worsened by the fact that despite all assurance regarding its ideal character, Plato's idea eventually proved something material. Thus, even a negative definition of the spirit was blurred and represented only a stage. On the contrary, Descartes' spirit rises to self-authenticity, separates itself from matter, determines itself and thus does not require any outer definitions (Rozemond 129-156). The difference between the idealism of Plato and the idealism of Descartes is that Descartes promotes it as something closest, most reliable and real; if Plato does not cross the line of ambivalence, Descartes reaches the true dualism which appears both a disadvantage that contradicts his philosophy and a positive discovery that positively influences his teaching. Descartes' dualism of the spirit and matter that was so strongly criticized eventually proved the main driving force of the whole new philosophy, its body and soul (Cunning 277-296). If Plato provides us with only the youth of philosophy, Descartes introduced its maturity and bloom, the beginning of its actual history.
Works Cited
Cunning, David. The Cambridge Companion to Descartes' Meditations. Cambridge UP, 2014. 277-296. Print.
Rozemond, Marleen. Descartes's Dualism. Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP, 1998. 129-156. Print.
Vogel, Cornelia J. De. Rethinking Plato and Platonism. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1986. 159-167, 178-184. Print.
