Question 1
The function of gossip is to build strong bonds between individuals (Wert and Salovey 123). Individuals can share ideas, opinions, and emotions by finding common grounds that unite them. These points of convergence, whether positive or negative, unifies them in long-term friendships or a temporary association. Gossip also facilitates social comparisons that can either build up or tear down an individual. By comparing themselves with others, people gain insights into the validity of their opinions and beliefs, hence the description of gossip as “self-evaluative” (Wert and Salovey 123). Self-evaluation creates an avenue for identifying the shortfalls in one’s skills and thought process, triggering the need and motivation for improvement. As humans, we rarely live in isolation but thrive in a community. As such, our actions have consequences on those around us. Therefore, it is important to evaluate our actions, thoughts, beliefs, and abilities to know our level of development and improve on them. Besides, such information about oneself promotes peaceful coexistence by conforming to accepted moral codes.
Gossip has several benefits and drawbacks. To the individual, gossip imparts knowledge on social norms and acceptable codes of behavior through stories of moral transgression committed by others. Negative talk about the folly of others enables individuals to learn from other’s mistakes. Comparisons with those who are inferior to them in terms of skills or cognitive accomplishments help people feel good about themselves, boosts their confidence, and motivates them to do even better. On the other hand, comparisons with those who are superior to them help people discover the secrets of other’s success and apply the ideas to their lives for self-improvement (Wert and Salovey 126). Gossip also creates avenues for individuals to vent their emotions arising from threatening or worrisome situations (Wert and Salovey 131). Keeping pent up emotions is unhealthy because it may lead to anxiety disorders, depression, or an eruption of violence later on. Moreover, individuals may end up making erroneous decisions in the heat of the moment that may prove costly. Thus, gossip is an outlet for emotional catharsis that enables people to receive alternative solutions to a problem that they would otherwise not think of due to their clouded judgment. On the downside, gossip can cause negative feelings such as pride, contempt, resentment, envy, and jealousy that destroy friendships and hinder self-improvement.
Question 2
Dowry death refers to the murder of married Indian women by kerosene burning or suicide due to incessant demands for additional dowry by the groom and his family (Van Willigen and Channa 266). The solutions to this problem include the criminalization of dowry through legislation, female education, awareness creation, increasing access of women to production roles, and instituting women property rights. The government of India first passed the Dowry Prohibition Act in 1961 to regulate the dowry process and minimize the excesses of the practice. The law bans dowry payment and advertising, and any individual who violates it faces a jail sentence of five years or more, or a minimum fine of 15,000 rupees (Van Willigen and Channa 268). The Act also lays the burden of proof on the accused given the custom of gender inequality that views women as second-class citizens. However, the law permits gift-giving during wedding ceremonies. While ineffective in its enforcement, the criminalization of dowry gives victims and their families a legal channel of seeking redress. For instance, Nisha Sharma, a young Indian bride, called the police on the day of her wedding after the groom and his family demanded dowry disguised as gifts from her parents (Lavenda and Schultz 397). The police arrested the groom and charged him with breaking the law.
Female education is an integral approach to ending dowry death. Regardless of modernization, Indian women still lag behind in attaining higher education due to early marriages. Being naive and ignorant of their rights, these young brides are often defenseless in the face of harassment from their in-laws. As a result, they stay in such cruel environments until either their in-laws murder them or their grief drives them to commit suicide. If educated, these women will be cognizant of their rights and the legal avenues available to them for reporting such crimes. For instance, Nisha was a computer student who knew her civil liberties and was able to take legal action against her groom for demanding dowry. As a result, she got out early from a potentially destructive marriage that could have led to her demise.
Awareness creation campaigns regarding dowry death, and its adverse effects on female newborns are essential. Several private organizations that condemn dowry payment exist in India. Research units such as the Center for Social Research publishes worrying statistics on the trend of dowry death and high mortality rate of female infants with a view of exposing the horrors of the practice. Other voluntary organizations and political action groups such as the Crimes Against Women Cell, and the BKU (Bharatiya Kisan Union)issue advertising on feminist issues and hold public demonstrations to urge people to stop dowry payment (Van Willigen and Channa 269). Women can also contribute to awareness creation by standing up for themselves since the buck stops with them. In the previous example, Nisha became a media sensation as several local newspapers hailed her as a role model to other brides (Lavenda and Schultz 397). By reporting her groom to the police, she helped shed light on the dangers of dowry custom and empower other victims to take action.
The limited access of women to production roles engenders dowry death. According to statistics, the amount of dowry is smaller for employed women than for unemployed females (Van Willigen and Channa 270). Furthermore, low-caste women are less exposed to employment restrictions than high-caste women are. Thus, allowing females to participate in gainful employment will limit the amount of dowry that in-laws demand because the bride will contribute to the income of the family. Employment opportunities will also enable them to amass personal wealth that limits their dependence on in-laws. Finally, the institution of female property rights is crucial in empowering women. Currently, Indian customs confer inherent property rights to male children from birth in exclusion of female children (Van Willigen and Channa 272). This tradition weakens the bargaining power of women in marriages and exposes them to abuse. To this end, gender neutral property laws that confers equal rights to inherit ancestral property to men and women will significantly reduce the economic imbalance existing in marriages and give Indian brides a bargaining chip.
Question 3
Shamans are religious practitioners believed to possess the ability to contact the spiritual realm directly on behalf of the living (Lavenda and Schultz 311). Communities with shamans believe that they can communicate with spiritual beings living in the cosmic realm by entering a trance. Once there, they usually ask favors on behalf of specific individuals who sent them or the community as a whole. Such favors can be positive such as healing, or negative such as attacking one’s enemies. To this end, shamans, therefore, act as a link between the natural the spiritual worlds. The process of making contact with spirits involves a lot of unique rituals, chants, dances, and the traditional attire according to the dictates of their custom. Most often, shamans use psychotropic substances to achieve an altered state of mind which is believed to make them susceptible to spirit visitations (Lavenda and Schultz 311). An example of shamanism is evident among the Tungus living in eastern Siberia. In this tribe, the role of the shaman is to facilitate healing, protection, fertility, and aggression by communicating with spirits through a trance. The Tungus believe that the cause of illnesses is spiritual and not physical in nature. A disease, therefore, indicates the loss of a soul, which can only be retrieved by a shaman in the cosmic realm (Lavenda and Schultz 312). Hostile spirits are responsible for stealing the soul of individuals, leading to a deterioration in their health and wellbeing. As such, it is the role of the shaman to journey to the spiritual world, search for, and restore the stolen soul to sick individuals, hence cause a healing in the natural world. Favors such as protection from enemies and fertility are usually sought from benign spirits who are either neutral or related to the individuals through ancestry. Being a Tungus shaman is an arduous undertaking that takes years to master under the guidance of an older, more experienced shaman.
Shamans still exist today among certain tribes although their numbers and importance have lessened due to the influence of white western culture. The movie, Split Horn, highlights the struggles that modern shamans face in trying to create a balance between their traditions and American culture (Siegel and McSilver). As a Hmong (pronounced “mung”) shaman, Paja Thao is a symbol of spiritual leadership among the Hmong community living in Appleton, Wisconsin. Like the Tungus shamans, Paja Thao acts as a bridge between the cosmic and physical worlds. He also uses elaborate rituals to enter a trance. In one scene in the movie, Paja wears a black veil and performs unique dances on a wooden bench while chanting and shaking as custom demands (Siegel and McSilver). This ritual induces a trance that transports him to the spiritual realm to seek guidance on issues or initiate healing. Similar to the Tungus shamans, the Hmong believe in the spiritual causes of illness – soul loss. This belief is evident when Paja performs a ceremony in which he realizes that his soul has wandered off from his body, causing him to sink into depression. In response, his family and community seek the help of two shamans to retrieve his soul from the spiritual realm and restore his health. Like the Tungus, Hmong shamans learn the custom by apprenticeship with an older shaman for several years before they can practice the tradition independently. Thus, the role of shamans in is somewhat similar across the communities that practice shamanisms, with possible variations only in the rituals that induce a trance. One striking thing about shamanism that is the inability of shamans to heal themselves as shown by the case of Thao in the movie. They too need the assistance of fellow shamans to get well.
Question 4
The identities of individuals develop from either the influence of the group/culture to which they belong (dependence training) or the actions of the individuals themselves (independence training). Culture exerts an intense pressure on people for conformity through the subordination of personal interests to the needs of the group. Cultural factors such as gender typecasting, caste system, familial ties, and dependence child-rearing shape the identity of people. Gender typecasting involves ascribing certain domestic duties to children based on their gender (Haviland et al. 208). For instance, many cultures assign domestic chores such as sibling care and cleaning to female children at young ages, forcing them to spend most of their time within the home environment. These duties limit their ability to explore other interests, leading them to believe that their role in life revolves around nurturance. In contrast, parents give male children duties outside the home environment that encourage curiosity, activity, and independence, making them more self-conscious and autonomous. Caste systems and familial ties also impose obligations on people based on their position in the class hierarchy and the strength of family bonds respectively (Mines 569). These restrictions revolve around various social issues such as marriage and careers. For instance, Indian customs shun inter-caste marriages, thus restricting individuals to the social classes in which they were born. Moreover, Indian families perceive love marriages as inferior to arranged marriages, denying people the right to choose spouses (Mines 573). India is typically a communal society that upholds collective interests and shuns self-assertion and autonomy. Parents and members of the extended families strongly influence the decisions of children by dictating to them how to behave, where to live, and which career choices to follow. The result is an identity based on sharing and conformity.
Dependence and interdependence child-rearing patterns in certain cultures also affect identity formation. Under dependence training, adults teach children to suppress selfhood for conformity to family norms (Haviland et al. 208). Such households consist of several family units living together. As a result, children adopt the values of cooperation and sharing through delegation of domestic chores. They also learn to obey without question rather than pursue independent thinking and goals. Interdependence training also promotes collective unity and strong social ties by exposing children to several caregivers (Haviland et al. 209). The identity of such kids will revolve around kinship and collaboration, and not autonomy. Independence training, on the other hand, shapes identity through personal effort rather than conformity to cultural norms. Individuals have personal goals that drive them to rebel against stifling social norms. The pursuit and achievement of these interests boost their self-confidence and autonomy. For instance, many Indians feel the need to contravene the wishes of their parents as they become older by marrying the spouses of their choice or switching to the careers that they love (Mines 574). Without personal goals, they would lack the motivation to break the repressive ties with their overbearing parents.
Whether the training is dependence or independence, both patterns can cause conflicts in identity. For instance, in the Split Horn movie, Paja Thao comes from a social setting with strong communal ties (dependence training). While his family found it easy to maintain strong communal and familial bonds in their homeland (i.e. Laos), the influence of Christianity and the media made such integration impossible (Siegel and McSilver). His children, except the lastborn, abandoned their Hmong culture causing much distress to Paja. The shaman faced with the challenge of preserving his culture while responding to the realities of modern life in the U.S. which emphasized individuality and autonomy (independence training). This conundrum affected his sense of identity since he no longer knew which side to ascribe his allegiance.
Question 5
The cultural factors that promote the spread of HIV in Haiti include patterns of sexual union and folk medicine. New patterns of sexual union have emerged in the country, especially in the cities, because of poverty. First, city dwellers show a preference for conjugal unions (plase) over religious or civil marriages (marye) (Farmer 247). Plase is less stable relationships associated with high STD infection rates because the partners are not legally bound to each other, leading to them having multiple sexual partners. Most rural women abandon the villages and move to the cities to search for domestic jobs. Once there, they enter relationships with salaried non-peasants such as truck drivers and soldiers to obtain some form of financial security. Most often, these women overlook the sexual history of their partners, who typically have had several romantic relationships in the past. This attitude puts them at risk for HIV infection. Of concern, however, is the gender inequality that persists in Haiti. Since women occupy a lesser social status than men do, their ability to negotiate for safe sex is weak. Hence, they cannot demand that their financial secure plase partners use condoms lest they lose the economic stability that these individuals offer. The inability to protect themselves, therefore, exposes them to STDs and ultimately HIV/AIDS. Second, the scarcity of jobs in the city due to massive rural-urban migration forces many rural women into occasional or regular clandestine sex work (Farmer 247). Prostitution has close ties with social inequality between genders. The majority of the well-paid salaried jobs available in the city are male-dominated such as truck driving and the military. In contrast, females can only secure unsalaried domestic jobs that pay less. As a result, some women engage in prostitution out of economic desperation. Coupled with their limited power over condom use, they become high-risk individuals for HIV infection. Third, the trend of serial monogamy among city women contributes to the spread of the disease. The females in the urban centers find one sexual partner with whom to engage in a conjugal relationship. The couple lives together for a year or two, have a child, then break up. The woman then finds another reliable partner who can support her and the child. This pattern repeats itself with each relationship encounter, exposing the women to HIV.
Folk medicine and beliefs also cause the spread of HIV in Haiti. Haitians often turn to traditional healers because of the inaccessibility of medical services in the rural areas. Since they lack knowledge in sterilization techniques, these healers engage in unsafe medical practices such as the use of one unsterilized syringe on several clients (Farmer 248). This practice creates fertile grounds for the transmission of contaminated blood from infected persons to unsuspecting healthy individuals, leading to the spread of the disease in the rural population. Widespread beliefs that HIV is an outcome of witchcraft also hinder preventive efforts in the country.
Political upheavals in the country have a role to play in the prevalence of HIV in the country. So far, Haiti has had six coup d’états that have disrupted prevention efforts by the government (Farmer 248). During such unrests, movement is restricted, and people are more concerned with physical safety rather than their health status. To this end, most people flee the cities for rural areas to escape repression by military personnel associated with the coup. This reverse migration exposes the rural population to infected city dwellers, spreading the disease to these regions. The recurrence of coups also means that prevention efforts remain unimplemented and ineffective because of the change in personnel in the health ministry which is dependent on the government of the day. Moreover, political unrest increases the rate of unprotected sexual encounters between women and male soldiers or police officers. As a result, STDs and HIV/AIDS fester in the population.
Works Cited
Farmer, Paul. "Culture, Poverty, and HIV Transmission: The Case of Rural Haiti." The Art of Medical Anthropology: Readings / Ed. by Sjaak Van Der Geest and Adri Rienks. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis, 1998. 215-228. Print.
Haviland, William A. "Social Identity, Personality, and Gender." The Essence of Anthropology. Australia: Wadsworth Cengage Learning, 2010. 208-211. Print.
Lavenda, Robert H., and Emily A. Schultz. Anthropology: What Does It Mean to Be Human? New York: Oxford UP, 2008. Print.
Mines, Mattison. "Conceptualizing the Person: Hierarchical Society and Individual Autonomy in India." American Anthropologist 90.3 (1988): 568-579. Print.
The Split Horn. Dir. Taggart Siegel, and Jim McSilver. n.d. Collective Eye Films, 2001. Film.
Van Willigen, John, and V. Channa. "Law, Custom, and Crimes against Women: The Problem of Dowry Death in India." Human Organization 50.4 (1991): 369-377. Print.
Wert, Sarah R., and Peter Salovey. "A social comparison account of gossip." Review of General Psychology 8.2 (2004): 122-137. Print.
