Social stratification
Introduction
Social stratification refers to the institutionalization of a layered hierarchy in societal relationships that ultimately defines social roles, entitlements and rewards (Thio, 1997). The social rewards (manifesting as wealth, power and prestige) then, usually become the defining characteristic and the very basis of social stratification. In effect, the notion of this patterned social inequality is deeply ingrained in social stratification wherein some people get more rewards than others based on their social hierarchy. Social stratification has certain characteristic features that include an ideological basis and its influence on the chances of its members attaining a good quality of life. Often the term ‘socioeconomic status’ is used to as a composite measure classifying social groups in terms of education level, wealth and occupation.
Implications of social class, race and gender
In the social stratification context, Max Weber promulgated the concept of "life chances". According to Weber, social stratification is a crucial influence governing a group’s or individual’s prosperity by determining his access to means necessary for upward social mobility. (Thio, 1997) In other words, an individual’s wealth, power and prestige are intricately linked with his social stratum. This in turn has a direct implication for health. Indeed, each of the three criteria of social stratification, i.e., class, race and gender, has an important bearing on health. These variables influence health by, for example, by determining an individual’s immediate physical environment (housing, hygiene, protection from vagaries of weather), access to nutritious food, health related practices and level of education (employability).
Gender
In many cultures, females eat after the males of the family eaten. Similarly, many cultures restrict participation of females in decision making, limit their access to education and health care services. For example, at the start of the 20th century, it was commonly believed that education would harm women’s health by diverting blood from the womb to their brains (Thio, 1997). Moreover, females are susceptible to domestic violence and are biologically predisposed to certain types of illnesses like STDs, anemia and calcium deficiency caused by multiple pregnancies.
Race
Race refers to a segment of a society whose members share certain common physical characteristics like, colour of skin, eyes or peculiar facial or bodily features. In sociological sense, race is often defined by social perceptions of biological features. Moreover, categorization of race may be determined by public opinion which in turn is prone to align with the views of the dominant section of the society. In effect, race can be interpreted as a social construct with considerable variability from one society to another. This can severely impact social lives, and, in particular, health status. Moreover, race often confers increased susceptibility to certain type of diseases, e.g., blacks tend to be more affected by skin disorders. Likewise, routine circumcision as a religious practice confers protection against some sexually transmitted diseases. Further, certain genetic traits are causally linked with racial genotypes. These may also be due to peculiar lifestyles, eating practices and occupations. E.g., Sickle cell disease (also known as Mediterranean Anemia) is more common in coastal inhabitations abutting Mediterranean seas.
As has been discussed, social stratification is one of the precursors of prejudice and stereotyping in the society. Prejudice refers to a negative perception regarding a group’s ideas, beliefs and perceived tendency to act in certain ways. Prejudice often leads to discrimination that implies an act that is motivated by a prejudiced belief. Further, according to attribution theory, both stigma and prejudice are both the result and the cause of societal attributions pertaining to members of various social strata. E.g., whites may be more prone to attribute negative traits like armed robbery to black minority as a whole. Similarly, instances of black Americans being denied access to apartments in a white neighborhood, is another classical example.
Relevance of sociological concepts to nursing care
Prejudice and discrimination often proves costly for underprivileged strata of society (ethnic minorities, poor socioeconomic status, females). Further, in addition to clinical diagnosis, effective treatment of patients often requires taking cognizance of social factors responsible for disease. In many ways, epidemiological study of health and disease involves social characterization, including, identification of predisposing factors in addition to causative agents. Indeed, recognizing and dealing with the social determinants of disease is an integral part of medical and public health practice.
Nursing care is a key component of medical treatment and can benefit from these sociological concepts in more ways than one. For example, a nurse by taking a detailed dietary history of a pregnant woman may be able to recognize poor dietary intake and, on its basis, counsel her husband for prioritizing her nutrition intake over others. Similarly, she can understand that there is a basis for a particular patient’s eating habits or lifestyle that is influenced by his social status or even religion. By understanding the context of these behaviors, a nurse can provide better medical care without prejudice and discrimination and also educate the patient on ways to avoid ill health by modifying his practices and behavior.
Deviance
Violation of a societal norm is often considered as an act of deviance. (Thio, 1997) Deviance is a relatively subjective phenomenon in that its characterization is liable to change over time and often varies from one place to another. It is particularly influenced by popular consensus which in turn often tends to align with the stronger and mightier segments in a society.
Rape as an act of deviance
Every year upwards of 100000 rape offences are registered in the United States. Many more, however, are likely to go unreported. While the notion of rape is commonly perceived to be linked with strangers, a vast majority of cases actually involve intimate relations such as close friends.
Approaches
Sociologists have tried to address the issue from the three perspectives: ‘Functionalist’, ‘Conflict’ and ‘Symbolic Interactionist’ perspectives. According to functionalists different strata of the society depend on each other while serving a specific function aimed at societal well being. Functionalist believe that a process called social consensus brings about order in the society. Inherent in this view is that society adapts to disruptive influences in a manner that adjusts and recreates a new social order. (Asch, 1955) Functionalists view rape as a deviant manifestation of biological roles of women and women. Gender roles expect males to impress women by using their power and aggression. Sociologically, then, rape is akin to a somewhat mutant expression of the biological drive to produce children. Indeed, some sociologists consider rape as an embodiment of socially approved male sexual behavior. This perspective provides explanation for phenomenon like ‘date rape’ and ‘rape in marriage’. Often the perpetrators in these situations don’t perceive the sex as having been forced owing to the traditional patriarchal belief wherein the notion of male aggressiveness is embedded in the culture.
Proponents of the conflict perspective are in favor of social change to reduce the forcible imposition of power by higher classes on lower classes. This perspective assumes an unjust world and perceives social change as beneficial. The feminist theory is an example of a conflict perspective which highlights the gender imbalance manifest in the society by viewing rape as an instrument used by men to impose their dominance on women. This assertion is supported by the near universal lower standing of women in terms of power, freedom of choice, employment wages and even respect. Underlying the culture of rape are several commonly manifesting attitudes towards women: Treatment of women as men’s property. Globally, rape is increasingly being used as a weapon of war. While armies destroy the conquered property, they also tend to rape, thus equating women with property. (Thio, 1997)
The interactionist theory essentially believes that individuals assign symbolic meanings to day to day interactions. Rooted in this ‘blame the victim’ belief is the myth that inherently women want to be raped. Thus often victim is assumed to have done something that led the man to rape her. Indeed, the willing victim myth often drives the motivation to rape.
References
Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and Social Pressure. Scientific American, 193, 31-35. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1155-31.
Thio, A. (1997). In Sociology: A brief introduction (3rd ed., pp. 121-211). New York, NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
