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Description of the topic and question
Physical violence can be described as intentionally using physical power or force, either by threat or act, on oneself or other people in a way that causes psychological harm, injuries, death or developmental deprivation, disturbance and disruption. Child abuse is defined as omissions or acts that are perpetrated with the intention of causing harm to the victims. The harm inflicted is the ultimate goal of physical violence (Newfoundland Labrador, 2015). Manifestations of physical violence against children range from corporal punishment to degrading or cruel treatment offered by family members, parents or other people such as teachers who have the responsibility of taking care of them. Despite the numerous efforts put in developing an effective response to physical violence, none has been achieved due to inadequacy of information on the scope and nature of violence, especially violence which occurs at home.
Question: Why Physical child abuse is common in most countries.
Relevance of the issue
The issue of physical child abuse is very widespread and has been termed as a global ‘health problem’. According to the World Health Organization, homicide accounted for about 53,000 deaths of children (WHO, 2016). According to the Global School Based Student Health Survey, which was conducted in different developing countries, 20%-65% of the school going children claimed to have been either physically or verbally bullied in their school. Similar rates of bullying were also found to be occurring even in the developed countries (GSHS, 2016). The study further established that about 73 million and 150 million boys and girls aged below 18 years respectively had experienced various forms of violence. UNICEF estimates indicate that about 3 million girls in Sudan, Egypt and Saharan Africa were forced to undergo FGM in every year. The study further indicates that approximately 218 million boys and girls were victims of child labour; among who 126 million took part in very hazardous work. While 1.8 million children were forced into pornography and prostitution, 1.2 million had been trafficking victims. According to UNICEF, in all the settings, only a small percentage of 2.4% of children are protected from physical violence in the world (Innocenti, 2016).
Among the many sources of information to learn and analyze the scope and nature of physical violence is making a compilation of statistics of the complaint made at different children’s services, social services, hospitals and police stations. However, the complaints made only offer partial information about the nature and scope of the abuse. Further, analysis of records indicates that victims know the perpetrators of physical violence against them and most of them are family members.
Only a small percentage of the physical violence acts against children is investigated. Also, only a small percentage of the perpetrators are punished. Most nations lack systems to record and investigate the reports made on physical violence acts against children. There are a number of reasons to explain why cases of physical violence are not reported. Most children, especially the very little ones lack the reporting capacity. Also, most are afraid of reporting due to the fear of being hurt by their perpetrators (NSPCC, 2016).
Risk factors for physical violence against children
According to the World Report on Violence and Health (2002), the ‘ecological model’ helps figure out the multifaceted, multi level nature of physical violence. It helps understand why physical violence against children is more common in some countries. Since it’s analytical, the model takes note of the fact that a number of factors contribute and perpetuate physical violence against children.
Figure 1: Atsdr.cdc.gov (2007). Social Ecological Model of Health. Retrieved from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/communityengagement/images/figure1.2_large.jpg
The model focuses on characteristics and personal history of the perpetrator or victim, their family, community factors (their social context) and the larger society characteristics. According to the model, a combination of these factors influences the probability of occurring, recurring or ceasing of physical violence. Factors which are significant to different levels of the model are in turn affected by the context in which the children interact; whether it is at home, in school, at the workplace or the community generally. The interaction of these factors is discussed in the next section;
Description and evaluation
Veenema, T. G., Thornton, C. P., & Corley, A. (2015). The public health crisis of child sexual abuse in low and middle income countries: An integrative review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52(4), 864-881 18p. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.10.017
The study carried out aimed at ascertaining the fact that the characteristics and incidence of sexual abuse against children in developing countries globally are poorly synthesized and inconsistent. In order to respond and curb sexual abuse against children, policymakers and health care providers need comprehensive details about the act on which to formulate their treatment and intervention programs.
The main methods used for this study include a comprehensive literature review by comprehensively searching five databases (PsycINFO, Web of Science, PubMed, EMBase and CINAHL). The databases contain information on the characteristics and incidence of various forms of sexual assault against children in the middle income and low income countries since 1980. Collective and independent analysis and assessment was used to establish major traits of the phenomenon.
The study made use of 44 articles, including 32 from separate middle or low income countries. It observed unequal distribution of the studies that was carried out globally. The study identified sexual assault against children as a common phenomenon at all societal levels, all regions and continents in the world. Talking about sexual assault is difficult due to the taboo and sensitive nature of the phenomenon. Major themes which emerged from the study include false perception of sexual assault against children, difficulty in acquiring accurate measurements, barrier to justice and barrier to reporting. Further, the study identifies the themes of human trafficking, early marriage, forced initial sex and sexual coercion as risk factors for teen sexual assault.
In conclusion, the representation of research in sexual assault against children in middle and low income countries is inadequate. Income is considered as a major stressor of families. More specifically, parents from low income families discover it complex to meet some of their families’ needs. They are overwhelmed by these stressors and in turn resort to abusing their children in an effort to regain calm and control in the environment. Children from low income families are more likely to seek employment opportunities also in a bid to meet their basic needs. Mostly, due to low self esteem, they are abused by their employers and do not seek any assistance because they do not see anything wrong with being abused.
Berger, L. M. (2005). Income, family characteristics, and physical violence toward children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(2), 107-133. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.02.006
The article makes a discussion of how microeconomic theories such as intra family bargaining, partner abuse and resource distribution within the family can influence the way we understand physical child abuse. The discussion’s implications are in turn tested according to data from the National Family Violence Survey (NFVS) of 1985 to estimate the impact of state characteristics, family characteristics and income on child physical violence.
In terms of methodology, the study makes use of a sample of 2,760 families who have children. Ordered probit and probit models are applied to determine the relationship between state characteristics, family characteristics, income and violence against children of both two parent families and lone parent families.
Results from the study indicate that in the two parent families and single parent families, alcohol consumption by mothers, history of violent behavior within the family and depression influence the probability of offspring in these families being abused. In addition, income greatly influences the probability of children in single parent families beings abused.
The findings from this study reinforce the fact that maternal depression, interfamily violence patterns, alcohol consumption by mothers and demographic characteristics influence child abuse. It also reinforces the fact that income plays a major role in parental violence for children who are from single parent families weighed against the two parent families. Income increases the ability of families to acquire their basic needs such as food, shelter and clothing. Moreover, it determines the extent to which individuals are ‘comfortable’ in their lives. Hence, if the family lacks income, especially a single parent that has no one else to depend on, they get depressed and in turn result to abusing their children physically through corporal punishment.
Tucker, M., & Rodriguez, C. (2014). Family Dysfunction and Social Isolation as Moderators Between Stress and Child Physical Abuse Risk. Journal Of Family Violence, 29(2), 175-186. doi:10.1007/s10896-013-9567-0
The study aims at examining the relationship between physical violence risk and psychological risk factors. The study makes use of an ecological approach in evaluating whether vulnerabilities of parents such as stress are stimulated distal stressors like social isolation and family dysfunction in a sample of mothers that is not identified. Primarily, the distal stressor was focused on due to the suggestion that the quality of support offered by extra familial and familial social has the possibility of contributing to parental stress. The study makes use of a small sample size of 95 mothers who are recruited from the general community.
Findings from this study indicate that perceive stress played a role in facilitating the risk of abuse. Social isolation and family dysfunction are also noted to play a role in increasing the risk of abuse. A higher risk of physical abuse was found to occur in situations where stress interacted with family dysfunction and family isolation.
The results indicate that background factors also increase the risk of physical violence. Background factors such as single parenthood and low income are found to increase the risk of abuse. The state of being a single parent and having a low level of income are stressors for mothers.
Indeed, parental stressors increase the risk of abuse. Mothers who are overwhelmed by multiple stressors on a daily basis tend to resort to physically abusing their children in a bid to regain their initial control of the environment. However, the degree to which a stressor is considered as overwhelming is determined by other personal factors. These personal factors could be an individual’s ability to cope up with stress. If a mother or any individual is overwhelmed by stressors and lacks mechanisms of scoping with the stress he or she is more likely to cause higher risk of physical abuse to their children.
Feinson, M. C., & Meir, A. (2015). Exploring mental health consequences of childhood abuse and the relevance of religiosity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(3), 499-521. doi:10.1177/0886260514535094
Despite the fact that abuse during childhood has been acknowledged as a threat factor for issue in mental health during adulthood, over the years, there has been very little evidence on factors that may help limit this risk. Religiosity is a potential protective factor. This study aims at reinforcing the fact that the Haredi respondents, who are attached to their religious beliefs and rituals, have a better mental health. Although most of the studies about child abuse have been focused on risk factors, less pay attention to the resilience factors such as religion. After child abuse has occurred, stronger beliefs in region are associated with low levels of cannabis and alcohol use. Less distress is experienced by the religious individuals compared to non religious individuals.
Findings from this study indicate that anger is one of the major factors that contribute to distress severity among the Haredi unlike the secular respondents. The contribution of anger to distress among the Haredi and secular respondents respectively was 6.1% and 2.9%. Recent abuses were noteworthy only for the Haredi respondents. Findings indicate that offensive trauma during childhood has the capability of compromising the protective role played by religiosity. While the religious involvement of boys stays unaffected after the aftermath of physical abuse, the girls are negatively affected, especially if they are abused physically.
Children are more likely to alienate from God and lose trust in him after an incident of physical abuse. Often, the children feel betrayed by the people they have put so much trust in. When abused, the children alienate and instance themselves in a bid to regain security and trust. This is the reason why even in adulthood, it is likely to find people who had been abused in their childhood withdrawn and alienated from the society. It is also the reason why women who had been abused in the past, whether non religious or non religious have considerably higher rates of distress.
Evaluation and overall conclusion
The studies presented are credible and serve as a good tool for understanding the issue of child physical violence, especially why it is common in most countries. The studies had a number of limitations. However, studies have clearly articulated the research questions and overall, it is safe to say that they have met the researcher’s motives. Furthermore, most of these researchers are well qualified as seen in the way they conducted their studies and articulated their findings.
In conclusion, physical child abuse is a very widespread issue. It is not caused by only a single factors but an interaction of various factors at the society, community, relationship and individual levels as seen from the sources. Most importantly, psychological issues play a big in physical child abuse. It is only through training people on coping strategies that physical child abuse due to psychological issues can be eliminated.
Further Research Questions and Why This Research is needed
More research in the future is very essential. Extensive information about the nature and incidence of physical child abuse is required to be collected so that policy makers and even health care providers can devise better mechanisms to prevent and treat the cases of child physical violence.
In order to further expound on factors that make a person vulnerable to stressors, investigation in the future should establish the role of biases or cognitive processes which play an important role in understanding factors that determine the uniformity of a response to a certain stressor.
References
Atsdr.cdc.gov,. (2007). Social Ecological Model of Health. Retrieved from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/communityengagement/images/figure1.2_large.jpg
Berger, L. M. (2005). Income, family characteristics, and physical violence toward children. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29(2), 107-133. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.02.006
Global school-based student health survey (GSHS),. (2016). Global school-based student health survey (GSHS). World Health Organization. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://www.who.int/chp/gshs/en/
Feinson, M. C., & Meir, A. (2015). Exploring mental health consequences of childhood abuse and the relevance of religiosity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(3), 499-521. doi:10.1177/0886260514535094
Innocenti, U. (2016). A League Table of Child Maltreatment Deaths in Rich Nations. UNICEF-IRC. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/353
NewFoundLandLabrador,. (2015). Types of Violence and Abuse | Violence Prevention Initiative. Gov.nl.ca. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://www.gov.nl.ca/VPI/types/
NSPCC. (2016). Physical abuse Retrieved 27 March 2016, from https://www.nspcc.org.uk/preventing-abuse/child-abuse-and-neglect/physical-abuse/
Tucker, M., & Rodriguez, C. (2014). Family Dysfunction and Social Isolation as Moderators Between Stress and Child Physical Abuse Risk. Journal Of Family Violence, 29(2), 175-186. doi:10.1007/s10896-013-9567-0
Veenema, T. G., Thornton, C. P., & Corley, A. (2015). The public health crisis of child sexual abuse in low and middle income countries: An integrative review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 52(4), 864-881 18p. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2014.10.017
WHO,. (2016). WHO | World Health Organization. Who.int. Retrieved 27 March 2016, from http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/surveillance/databases/mortality/en/
