1) The phenomenon of military slavery became nearly universal from Egypt to Central Asia in the medieval period. Many Europeans were shocked at the thought that the roles held by kings, nobility, and aristocracy were held by soldiers of such humble beginnings. Discuss this phenomenon, what accounted for it and why did it become so widespread?
Most of the existing work that has been published about slavery focuses on the transportation of slaves into Europe and the extreme west across the Atlantic Ocean into America. However, records of the booming Sahara-Indian Ocean Slavery business that existed since the seventh Century and lasted through to the 20th Century are rare.
In the ninth Century, describes Jere Bacharach, the Abbasids (Muslim rulers) needed more men in their army that would be completely loyal to the supreme authority. With no local ties hence high vulnerability, the slaves from mainly East Africa served in the military alongside a minority of non-slave men. The most famous of these military slave troops were the Central Asian Turks called the Mamluks. They lasted from the ninth century through to the 19th Century and were of great political importance as explained by David Ayalon.
Once in the Middle East, the slaves were converted to Islam, trained in archery, horse riding and using swords and taught military orders. The common theory was that armies should consist 'homogeneous' units so that they would compete and outdo each other on the battlefield and still obey military orders.
The Muslim law did not allow children of Muslim parents to be enslaved even if the parent were slaves. The law increased the demand for military slaves. It led to the growth and the long lasting periods Mamluks existence. Their dependability and loyalty was admired and exploited. The price of Mamluks was high, as they had a status above ordinary slaves. In Egypt, they had a status higher than free born Muslims. They were loyal and constituted an effective army for their masters.
Up until 1517 when they were conquered by Ottoman (who used firearms), they had ruled Egypt for five centuries. In 1250, they killed the Egyptian ruler, abolished slave labor and took control of the country.
2) Discus what did the title khalifa mean during the time of the Abbasids showing how the meaning of the title has changed over the years since the time of Abu Bakr.
Before prophet Muhammad died, he chose Abu Bakr to succeed him. After conflicts and disputes, Muhammad's son-in-law submitted to the leadership of Abu Bakr as the supreme leader of the Muslim community. Beginning with Central Arabia, He was successful in spreading Islam through conquest. He also ensured that the Prophets sayings were neatly preserved in written form. He was effective and efficient and respected.
The Abbasids, supported by other Arabs revolted, overthrew the Umayyads and established the most powerful Muslim empires of all time. Famously known as the golden age of Islam, the period was characterized by philosophy culture and invention.
Later in the 9th Century, the Abbasids were (unlike their predecessors) no longer able to exercise their religious or political authority. Their religious part was taken over by religious Scholars of Sunni after the Caliphs could not impose their will over them in 'Mihna' trial of strength. From then on, they merely played a symbolic role.
Politically on the other hand, they were controlled by the Turkish soldiers who at their own will, removed and installed new Caliphs. In 908, one Caliph was removed from office the same day he was installed. The territories they controlled fell apart and independent states arose. By the 10th Century, they no longer had power over the Sunni. They completely lost their duty as Calyphs. The Sunni took over control and responsibility of Islam.
3) The 19th century in Egypt is characterized as a period of tension between forces of continuity and forces of change, Explain.
The 19th Century began with a mixed feeling of relief and calm in Egypt as the Mamluks resumed their normal duties uninterpreted. Napoleon and his army had just retreated to Paris under pressure from Turk and British forces. This peace was however, short-lived.
Calm and stability favored Muhammad Ali's capitalization that opened Egypt to the free market. He transformed the army, established the navy and modernized Egypt. Two rival groups of the ruling class conflicted on foreign policies. They waged a struggle within the country. One group consisted retrograde landlords of the old society who, with their influence, strove to maintain ties with Turkey. They took their cue from the British who, being predominant in Egypt's foreign trade, had influence in Constantinople.
The second group consisted merchants and liberal landlords. They had embarked on the capitalist style of development. They wanted a continuation of the reforms and relied on the French. The 'Francophiles' (as they were known) were led by Ibrahim Pasha (Muhammad Ali's son). They Supported change and France had therefore had a decisive say in matters during his reign. He was loyal to his father's policies. When he died, however, his grandson, Abbas Pasha, an arrogant and forceful leader, took power. He swore his allegiance to Turkey and at the same time, Obeyed the British.
His reign was characterized by land grabbing, stopping projects and poor planning.
With the continuous domineering policy of foreign consuls (the British and the French), Egypt would only be independent during the time rivalry and competition between England and France was intense.
Works Cited
Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. Mongols and Mamluks: The Mamluk-Īlkhānid War, 1260-1281. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. Print.
Cobb, Paul M. White Banners: Contention in ʻabbāsid Syria, 750 - 880. Albany: State Univ. of New York Press, 2001. Print.
Nicolle, David. The Mamluks, 1250-1517. London: Osprey, 1993. Print.
Sonbol, Amira E.-A. The New Mamluks: Egyptian Society and Modern Feudalism. Syracuse, N.Y: Syracuse Univ. Press, 2000. Print.
