Question one
White Collar crimes are criminal offenses whose offenders are people of high respectability in the society. White collar criminals usually occupy a position of trust and then devise a scheme to acquire wealth illegally. As Sutherland noted, white collar offenders do not see themselves as criminals. Crimes such as insider trading, Ponzi schemes, bribery, fraud, money laundering, cyber crime, copyright infringement and embezzlement fall within the definition of white collar crimes.
Sutherland disagreed with substantive and procedural principles of criminal law. Edwin Sutherland was more concerned with the perpetrator of the white collar crime than the crime itself. His writings have influenced the drafting of U.S sentencing commission’s guidelines. Edwin Sutherland was against the preferential treatment of white collar offenders. The criminal justice system was lenient in punishing white collar criminals. The socially skewed view was influenced by the by the theories of crime associating biological characteristics to criminal offenses. Poor social background is associated with criminal capability.
Sutherland claims that the law stigmatizes the poor, but fails to apply the same standard measure to the affluent in the society. Edwin Sutherland brought to the attention of the world this social injustice by arguing that both criminal offenders should be treated the same way. Professor Sutherland attributed the cause of white collar crimes to social phenomena. The social and legal institutions encouraged the commission of white collar crimes. The criminal justice system had relaxed standards for proving the commission of white collar crimes. Professor Sutherland, however, contended that prosecuting white collar criminals were hindered by serious hurdles. The white collar criminals used complex financial transactions to hide their crimes. White collar crimes are common with people of high level of intelligence who are also familiar with covering their tracks to evade being arrested by law enforcement agents.
Question two.
Feminist criminologists argue that the criminal system is male dominated, and that has subsequently affected the study of crime. The patriarchal domination of criminology has generated a lot of bias and prejudice in handling of women's issues. Most feminist theorist contends that the mainstream criminology has either neglected or ignored the female gender in a bid to support the status quo and to further male domination in the society. Feminist scholars argue that theories of criminology are developed and validated by men. The theories serve male subjects in the society more than their female counterparts in the society.
Crime is caused by hostilities caused by men. Since men are socialized to treat women in a protective and fatherly way, women get an advantage of not being the subjects of study by criminal theorist. However, women get unfair sentences when they commit offenses that are attributed to the male gender. The justice system sexualizes their offenses hence getting more years in prison compared to male offenders. The economic emancipation of women that happened in the 1970s has led women to be as crime prone as men.
Female theorists argue that the justice system is unfair because women are likely to become victims of crimes compared to men. They further argue that violence is the leading cause of injuries to women and young girls aged between 15 and 44. In addition, less than one percent of rape victims have received damages. Feminists’ postulate that equitable solutions to crime should be adopted that serve the interests of both men and women. Some states have reacted to the feminist school of thought by establishing programs to provide guidance and counseling to women whose husbands are in prison. In the contemporary world, the effects of feminist theories can be seen. Women are no longer considered as inferior beings or second class citizens. More ladies are taking legal studies and an increase in the number of ladies studying law has led to the social emancipation of women from a patriarchal society. The United Nations Minimum Standard Rules for Treatment of Prisoners addressed the issues raised by feminist criminologists. Women treatment in prison has improved over the last three decades. To address the discrepancies in sentencing pointed out by the feminist criminologist, the Federal sentencing guidelines were crafted to ensure there is equity in the criminal system.
Question three
The Routine Activity Theory was developed Marcus Felson and Lawrence Cohen. Contrary to the mainstream theories of criminology, Marcus and Felson propound that crime is unaffected by social causes such as; poverty, social and economic inequality and the unemployment rate. Felson and Cohen proposed the theory of a motivated offender. The commission of a crime is influenced by the convergence of opportunity to commit a crime and favorable circumstances to avoid being caught.
According to the Routine Activity theory, the risk of being victimized is determined by the task performed rather than the occupation. Studies have shown that the campus girls that were living outside the university were more vulnerable to stalking than those living in the campus hostels. Young and educated people were more likely to become victims of internet fraud than their counterparts. Marcus and Cohen argued that the victimization of workers could decline if the mobility of the public handling money was reduced. The theory has received criticism for not providing a connection between the victims and the offender. Critics argue that motivation to commit crimes can be reduced if legitimate methods of earning income are available.
Question four
Integrated life course theories offer a new approach in the understanding of the causes of crime. The traditional theories of crime offer a single cause of crime such as poverty and economic inequality. Integrated course theories argue that crime is a complex social phenomenon with multiple causes, as opposed to a single cause propounded by traditional theories of crime.
The factors that cause crime change over time during the development of a person. Criminal tendencies are caused by the impact of a various factors in the society. The upbringing of a child will determine whether the child will have criminal tendencies in the future. Cognitive desistance can be developed either in early age or later in adulthood.
Scholars such as Merton, Sutherland and Cohen have provided the groundbreaking work for the life discourse theory. According to the multifactor theory children, are socialized according to the environment they are raised. The environment determines whether the child will become delinquent in the future. Weakening of social bonds has an impact on criminal behavior. Delinquents in societies that are losing their grip on moral values reject the conventional values and result to crime. Moffits theory of delinquency propounds that criminal tendencies in childhood can persist into adulthood. As propounded in the interactional theory delinquency is something that unfolds in time. Family attachment, especially during early childhood determines whether a child will abide by the society's values or become a delinquent.
References
DeLisi, M., & Beaver, K. (2011). Criminological Theory: A Life-Course Approach. New York: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Lilly, R., Cullen, F., & Ball, R. (2011). Criminological Theory: Context and Consequences. New York: SAGE.
Newburn, T. (2013). Criminology. New York: Routledge.
Payne, B. (2012). White-Collar Crime: The Essentials: The Essentials. New York: SAGE publications.
Vito, G., & Maahs, J. (2011). Criminology: Theory, Research, and Policy. New York: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
