Investigation of Bodies in Water and Asphyxia
Essay
Abstract
Asphyxia is the blocking off of oxygen to the brain. There are several ways for this phenomenon to take place. These involve strangulation, drowning, positional and traumatic asphyxia, and suffocation. However, for forensic pathologists and police investigators, this is not as simple as it may seem. Asphyxia is a complex occurrence that does not lend itself to a simple classification. There are numerous subtypes and factors that have to be considered in asphyxia-related death investigation. For instance, once a body is found in and extracted from the water, investigators have to look for specific aspects, such as the rate of decomposition, ocular changes, post-mortem movement, and so on in order to accurately determine the cause and manner of death, whether it is suicidal, homicidal, or accidental. This paper critically analyzes and discusses the nature and classification of asphyxia and the techniques investigators use in examining bodies in water.
The issue of asphyxia is somewhat complicated, and an accurate knowledge of the definition of the different terms is crucial to prevent misunderstanding. In general, asphyxia is defined as death brought about by absence or loss of oxygen. In 2010, in an attempt to systematize the classification of asphyxia, a consolidated form of classification was introduced. In this recently coordinated classification of asphyxia within the criminal law setting, four key classifications of asphyxia are identified, namely, drowning, positional and traumatic asphyxia, strangulation, and suffocation (Sauvageau & Geberth, 2013, 122). Deaths because of drowning are also attributable to asphyxia. As explained by an expert (Nickell & Fischer, 2013, 256):
The lungs ordinarily are not filled with water. In the process of drowning, the person takes some water in the mouth and begins to choke. Irritation of the mucous membranes results in the formation of a great deal of mucus in the throat and windpipe. Efforts to breathe produce sticky foam which may be mixed with vomit. The foam prevents the passage of air into the lungs.
The existence of white foam may thus suggest death by drowning. According to Nickell and Fischer (2013), other hints are inflammation of the lungs and items like seaweed or algae seen clutched in the hand-- a sign of cadaveric convulsion.
On the other hand, positional asphyxia takes place when a person attains a specific body position wherein their breathing is burdened, usually due to the twisting of the neck with cramping or ascent of the tongue into the posterior hypopharynx and/or contraction of the trachea (Dutelle, 2016). Even though positional asphyxia can take place within various situations, usual positional asphyxia often concerns intoxicated people who faint in a cramped space, which causes their necks to twist or bend, thus inhibiting sufficient respiration. In contrast, in instances of traumatic asphyxia, hard compressive motions are inflicted straight to the chest, prohibiting respiration, and the person normally has no major internal traumatic fracture (Becker & Dutelle, 2012). In certain instances, though, rib fissures and other damages have been found.
Strangulation deaths, if homicidal, could be hinted by marks of fingertips on the neck. Fingernail scars could also be found in instances of physical strangulation. If there is a cut or other scars on the throat of the victim, it may suggest ligature strangulation. Strangulation could be characterized by larynx damages (Spitz & Spitz, 2006). As regards asphyxia caused by hanging, indications of brute force, especially on the neck, could be a sign of previous strangulation. The death is perhaps caused by suicide if the body is discovered not to be fully hanged, because a killer would make an effort to fully hang the body (Hess, Orthmann, & Cho, 2016). Hanging is a typical form of suicide yet is quite uncommon as a type of accidental death or homicide.
And, lastly, in cases of suffocation, the air passage is cut off. For instance, this could be carried out by a pillow pressed against the face, with probable injuries and contusions on the upper lip of the victim. Moreover, suffocation could be unintentional, with foreign matters like food blocking the air passage (Dutelle, 2016). In such a case, the foreign matter must be exposed in the autopsy. Asphyxia may also be brought about by severe force, like chest compression, or blow to the neck.
Autoerotic Asphyxiation Syndrome and Self-Induced Asphyxiation
Self-induced asphyxiation could be either physical or chemical, with the intention of increasing the sexual gratification. Self-induced asphyxiation can lead to death; yet, numerous of these deaths could mistakenly be classified as homicides or suicide due to the absence of an accurate, thorough understanding of the practice (Becker & Dutelle, 2012). Eroticized repetitive hanging, also known as autoerotic asphyxiation syndrome (AAS), is a paraphilia-- a disorder marked by unusual sexual urges, normally including intense or perilous activities-- of the disastrous form wherein sexuoerotic stimulation and achievement of orgasm are brought about by asphyxiation and self-strangulation (Nickell & Fischer, 2013). As explained by Dutelle (2016), it has been suggested that the hanging could be carried out to create physiological arousal throughout masturbation, stimulation that should occur by means of blocking the flow of blood to the brain, inducing cerebral anoxia which is personally experienced as excitement, dizziness, and loss of balance, which stimulates the effects of masturbation.
The most widespread physiological process through which sexual stimulation is achieved is through neck choking. Other less widespread type of AAS are as follows: subjecting the body to electric current; ingestion of chemical vapors; covering the head with plastic or cloth; and, squeezing of the abdomen (Hess et al., 2016; Sauvageau & Geberth, 2013). There are also less prevalent practices called atypical autoerotic methods. Being the most prevalent, the practice of constricting the neck is carried out by attaching some kind of rope or bandage around the neck that is intended to allow the victim to regulate the compression. Temporary cerebral hypoxia in the course of the autoerotic act alongside self-risk and physical vulnerability to the extent that life is endangered, increases sexual pleasure-- yet it also undermines the rationality and self-control of the victim (Sauvageau & Geberth, 2013) at times leading to inadvertent death from the victim's inability to correctly use or administer already established self-recovery systems.
Techniques of Investigating Bodies Found in Water
Investigating asphyxia and correctly identifying the cause of death necessitate that the investigator carry out an expert and thorough scene investigation. This apparently implies that the investigator must have a knowledge of indications or signs that could be found in the victim's background and scene. The psychological postmortem can be useful in explaining cases wherein it is indefinite or unclear whether the motive was inherently autoerotic or suicidal. As greater knowledge on this type of death is generated by means of studies, the investigator will be provided further guidance in resolving and correctly categorizing these cases.
Generally, investigators working on a body discovered in water classify it an accident even prior to their arrival on the scene. Investigators sometimes feel ill-equipped because of the absence of proper training, the necessity of acquiring witness testimonies regarding the incident, the need to control sightseers, and the absence of an experienced dive unit. In other words, numerous problems can surface in the course of scene investigations as regards bodies discovered in water (Armstrong & Erskine, 2010). In water-related investigation, the scene is far more unpredictable compared to bodies found on land. Primarily, investigators must be conscious of the critical role they fulfill in inspecting and detailing the scene and in acquiring sufficient evidence throughout the initial phases of a water-related death.
The preliminary scene must constantly be regarded with suspicion, particularly if the individual who reported the case is the sole person who has discovered the body in the water. Efforts to match a single witness account and other factors into an accidental drowning can lead to a limited perception and one-sided investigations. Propensity to analyze existing information or evidence in such a manner that it validates preconceived ideas or 'cognitive bias'-- wherein an individual's response to a given situation is determined by how it is presented-- with narrow data and details on the circumstances of death, are dangerous and difficult tasks when investigating water-related deaths (Hess et al., 2016). During the initial investigation, besides accidental drowning, the likelihood of water-related death caused by other reasons should be sufficiently examined.
Investigation of bodies found in water must be carried out by well-prepared and highly qualified personnel. In the U.S., for example, the FBI Underwater Search and Evidence Response Teams employ specific technologies, gadgets, and procedures to carry out search operations in highly challenging environments, not just in incidents of violent crime but in accidental drowning as well (Armstrong & Erskine, 2010). As soon as a body is recovered from water, medico-legal autopsy analysis must try to identify 'why' and 'how' the person died. There is a broad agreement that any assumption on 'why' (cause/s) and 'how' (manner) the incident occurred should be grounded on a careful and coordinated examination of post-mortem information, circumstantial aspects, and the background of the deceased (Spitz & Spitz, 2006). The acquisition of these information calls for the integrated efforts and collaboration of forensic pathologists and police investigators.
As warned by Stevens (2007), “For too long the word 'drowning' has been synonymous with 'accident'” (as cited in Hess et al., 2016, 291). A thorough, precise knowledge of the drowning mechanism will contribute to the investigation by helping investigators acquire evidence that could suggest criminal involvement. Bodies drowned in water for a given period of time go through changes that assist investigators in identifying whether the incident was homicidal, suicidal, or accidental. A body drenched in water might decay quickly, depending on the mineral content, salinity, and temperature of the water (Hess et al., 2016; Spitz & Spitz, 2006). It is crucial to remember that wounds or damages seen on a body are not automatically related to the cause of death.
A number of factors can inform an investigator about the cause and manner of the drowning, namely, the eyes of the victims, rigor mortis and lividity, and body placement. The drowning victim's eyes will glimmer momentarily once they are taken out of the water but then dry up instantly. If investigation reveals that portion of the eye is drained quickly after being taken out of the water, the victim possibly did not die in the water, but on land (Armstrong & Erskine, 2010). The discoloration of the body, the condition of rigor mortis (i.e. thickening of the body's muscles and joints immediately after death), and lividity can imply if the victim was dead prior to being placed in the water. And, lastly, most drowning victims are positioned in a semi-fetal way (Becker & Dutelle, 2012). However, the absence of specialized training in police investigation could restrict the number of evidence provided to the pathologist to identify the cause of death. This could result in invalid findings or conclusion. Thus, upon discovery and acquisition of a body nearby or in the water, an on-scene examination of the body is required (Dutelle, 2016). Needed materials and equipment (e.g. protective gloves) must be used throughout the inspection that, over time, can be carried out quickly.
The on-scene examination of the body will include the following important aspects: post-mortem movement-- travel injuries, or abrasions sustained from the wandering of the dead body, may suggest the body has travelled from its initial water-entry point; changes in the eyes, as mentioned previously; the presence of a pinkish or white foam coming out of the nose and/or the mouth; rigor mortis and lividity; physical injuries-- any form of damage to the body must be considered, because the nature of the location and appearance of these wounds is vital and could help the pathologist identify when the body acquired the injuries; decomposition-- considerable decomposition accompanied by discoloration and swelling could make the identification of the victim (e.g. physique and race) almost unlikely; and, skin slippage-- by a few days, skin slippage could be seen all over the body (Hess et al., 2016; Armstrong & Erskine, 2010; Nickell & Fischer, 2013). A catalogue for an on-scene body inspection will enable the investigator to note and document observations made throughout the examination and precisely record damages to the body by employing the correct materials, such as forms for on-scene body examination. Tests like assessment of levels of ocular magnesium ion, the 'Gettler serum chloride test on ventricular heart blood', and measurements of ocular fluid electrolyte (Armstrong & Erskine, 2010, 14) were developed in an effort to analyze water-related deaths or distinguish saltwater from freshwater drowning.
Conclusions
Asphyxia is a difficult case for any investigator to handle. There are numerous factors to take into consideration, such as the wide array of its classification and the complexity of its process. As discussed, there are four major classifications of asphyxia-- drowning, positional and traumatic asphyxia, strangulation, and suffocation. But the classification does not stop there, because each of these classifications has its own subtypes. Such complexity makes it difficult for the investigator to accurately determine the exact cause and manner of death. Therefore, it is crucial for the investigator to have a specialized training and sufficient experience and knowledge on asphyxia-related death investigation.
References
Armstrong, E. & Erskine, K. (2010). Water-related death investigation: practical methods and forensic applications. London: CRC Press.
Becker, R. & Dutelle, A. (2012). Criminal investigation. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Dutelle, A. (2016). An Introduction to Crime Scene Investigation. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Hess, K., Orthmann, C., & Cho, H. (2016). Criminal investigation. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.
Nickell, J. & Fischer, J. (2013). Crime science: methods of forensic detection. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky.
Spitz, W.U. & Spitz, D.J. (2006). Spitz and fisher's medicolegal investigation of death: guidelines for the application of pathology to crime investigation. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
Sauvageau, A. & Geberth, V. (2013). Autoerotic deaths: practical forensic and investigative perspectives. London: CRC Press.
