Influence of Black Greek Sorority: Recruiting and Retaining African American Women Leaders in Higher Education
20 pages 20 references
Introduction
A demographic shift is happening that can potentially be an opportunity for African American females to step into leadership positions in community colleges. In 2007 60 percent of the presidents were 61 or older meaning that they are ready for retirement (Weisman and Vaughn 2007). The ageing of the baby boom generation means that the anticipated level of retirement for community college presidents as a whole was 15 percent for 2015 (Shults, 2001).Forty nine community college presidents retired in 2011 (AACC, 2012). The large turnover due to retirements is an opportunity to fill executive level positions (Weisman & Vaughn, 2007). Even so only a slight increase for women is trending ()
However few of the replacements were African American females although the 49 retirements constituted 47 percent of the total community colleges. Only three African American were hired as replacements for retirees (Britton, 2013). College presidency positions of all types of colleges and universities are filled by 26 percent women (AACC 2012; ACE 2012). In terms of community college students 61 percent are women and they are under represented by a large gap (AACC 2012; ACE 2012). “It’s just logical that if you’re going to be an effective leadear you’ve got to have some understanding of the people you’re leading” stated researcher Dr. George Vaughan (Evelyn, 2007). Dr. Vaughn is co-researcher with Dr. Iris Weisman of a study cited often in this literature review. Dr. Vaughn went on to give an example “If a large percent of your student body is Hispanic, and you are Caucasian and have no understanding of Hispanic culture, then it would seem to me that you wouldn’t be the best person suited to make decisions which are in their best interest” (Evelyn, 2007). Dr. Pierce stated that the reason more Black presidents are found in 2-year colleges is because “community colleges are more pragmatic” and do not expect candidates to come from affluent social circles (Evelyn, 2007).
A challenge is presented because in order to fill the positions with African American females, a momentum needs to be initiated and maintained (Lane, 2004). Research shows that if support for African American women is not forthcoming, than the number of community college black female presidents can decline substantially (Lane, 2004).
Benjamin et al. pg 1
Two main leadership roles are addressed in the published academic literature that of community college CEOs and Presidents, which are overlapping labels (Benjamin, Dukes, Gnage & Scott-Skillman 2010). In this literature review CEO is defined as chancellors, presidents and provosts because the definition was used in the Benjamin et al. (2010, pg. 1) study that includes the U.S. and Bermuda (Benjamin et al., 2010). The Presidents’ Round Table of African American CEOs was organized in 1983; at that time only seven Black CEOs were in community college CEO positions ((Benjamin et al., 2010). Twenty-seven years later, January 2010 the number of black females increased to 59 in the role of CEO (Benjamin et al., 2010). The 59 sitting CEOs represents four percent of the total number of women in the same roles; 28 percent of the total CEO positions were held by women (Benjamin et al., 2010). The total number of women was broken down into the following subcategories of “19 percent were of racial/ethnic background (non-white)” whereas “81 percent were white” (Benjamin et al., 2010, p. 2).
The participants of the survey in the Benjamin et al. (2010) research
The location of the research focuses on Midwestern community colleges where few African Americans live. {The research will answer the question - How do colleges recruit and maintain African-American women for leadership position Midwestern community colleges, especially where the community is mainly a white population?}
(Benjamin et al., 2010, pg. 3)
The importance of African-American women in roles of president and high level administrators is difficult to measure, but the impacts breaks stereotypes because of their visibility. “It’s not that they (higher education institutions) promote women preferentially but that they’re less likely to accept stereotypes that equate leadership traits with male socialization” (Cook, 2012, p. 1). A survey by the American Council on Education reported that only 26.4 percent of women president’s across the spectrum of higher education in 2011compared to 23 percent in 2006 (ACE 2012; Cook, 2012).
The ACE 2012 survey compares the percentage of women presidents finding that 29 percent are in Associates and decreases from there to 13.8 percent in doctoral positions (2006) and from 33 percent to 22.3 percent in 2011 (Cook, 2012). (See table 1) “If the proportion of women who serve as senior administrators and full-time faculty provide a standard for equity, then women, as presidents, remain underrepresented; women make up 57% of faculty and senior administrative staff, but less than half that percentage of presidents” (ACE 2012 as cited by Cook, 2012, p. 3).
More women have experience in classrooms and laboratories than men; approximately 75 percent women have had such experience whereas 33 percent of men have had comparable experiences (Cook, 2012, p. 2). On the other hand more men than women are available for recruitment into positions of president and CEO based upon the larger number of men with doctoral degrees in education and therefore more experience in administrative roles in higher education. (See table 2)
The best way to “break down stereotypes and open doors to diversity is to place minorities in highly “visible top leadership positions” (Cook, 2012, pg. 2). However according to ACE the hiring of minorities is decreasing for African-Americans and American Indians (Cook, 2012). Although compared to the previous five years The number of African-American presidents increased to 34 percent (Cook, 2012). (See table 3)
Cook (2012) notes the reduction in hiring women of color because although 17 percent of women presidents in early 2000s were women of color, out of the recent hires only 10.7 percent were women of color. For example the amount of “racial and ethnic minorities” reduced from 13.6 percent (in 2006) to 12.6 percent (in 2011) (Cook 2012, pg. 3). In 2005 colleges with no historical connection to minorities had only nine percent blacks or Hispanics as president and in 2011 later the percentage was the same (ACE 2012; Cook, 2012).
Black Greek Sororities
The impact of the Black Greek sorority for recruiting and retaining African American women leaders in college administration is a good place for to search. A chapter of Sigma Phi Society was organized at Hamilton College in 1831 (Parks 2008). Twenty years later the Adelpehan Society was organized at Wesleyan College as a secret society for women. The first African-American female sorority was established at the all-black Howard University in Jaanuary 15, 1908, the Alpha Kappa Alpha (AKA) Sorority (Parks 2008). The African-American sororities in the US are listed below.
Alpha Kappa Alpha (AKA)
Delta Sigma Theta (Delta)
Zeta Phi Beta
Sigma Gamma Rho
The original purpose for forming the fraternal organizations was to support African American students and other students of color (Parks, 2008). Therefore two elements developed early in the BGLOs. Firstly the African-American students were looking towards the white fraternal organizations for how to set up the structure while “at the same time incorporating aspects of racial identification, cultural heritage, and social uplift” (Brown, Parks & Phillips, 2005, p. 181).
The BGLOs produce links with the local community and national organizations including the Association of the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the United Negro Colored Fund, the National Urban League, and groups involved specific sectors of society such as political and charitable groups (Floyd, 2009). The church is the only organization that is larger and stronger than BGLOs in black communities (Floyd, 2009). Harris (1998, pg. 1)
Enhancing self-esteem, a family atmosphere, opportunities for networking in the academic, business and other areas, creating life-long friendships, academic support for studying are part of the intention of creating the organizations (Floyd, 2008). Same sex and race role models are available in BGLOs for their members (Floyd, 2009).
Black sororities have many functions including two of the most important: providing mentoring and networking opportunities for students (Floyd, 2009). The intention is that a community will Research demonstrates a positive perception of the significance to the careers of the student who join black sororities.
Dunbar (1990, pg. 23) noted that “GLOs are a ready-made market of affluent ambitious and influential professionals, and can be a great networking resource to those interested in expanding their careers or business ventures.”
Black Greek sororities focus on empowering black women to be assets to themselves and their communities” (Floyd, 2009, p.29).
Harris (1998, pg. 1) reported that BGLOs “have grown to be among the strongest political, social and cultural forces in the Black community”(Harris, 1998)
Bonner (2006, pg. 17) described how the BGLOs were focused on forming an organization of black unity for college students “in which the national climate upheld racial injustice, inequality, and separate but ‘unequal’ doctrines that marginalized the existence of African Americans.”
Empowering women with positive stereotypes and destroying the negative stereotypes is a priority.
Many names make up the list of successful and famous women in the United States.
Carol Mosley-Braun, the first African-American woman elected to the U.S. Senate was a Delta.
Mae C. Jeminson, the first African-American woman astronaut was in the AKA.
Hazel O’Leary was the U.S. Secretary of Energy and also in AKA.
Background on community colleges
The first community college opened its doors a century ago in the Midwestern state of Joliet, Illinois. The purpose of the Joliet Junior College was to offer college courses to students in the community; the college served as a post-graduate high school (AACC, 2007). The public nature of community colleges allowed the purpose of the institutions to change to meet the needs of the country during the Great Depression and after WWII (AACC, 2007).
Previously community colleges were known as junior colleges and were started at the beginning of the 20th century. The modern community college came into being after the G.I. bill, known as the G.I. Bill of Rights was passed through Congress at the end of World War II. Grants were made available to returning G.I.s for education; many chose their local community college (AACC, 2007). During the depression the community colleges were designed to offer liberal arts associate degrees, reduce the rate of unemployment, and offer training to the large influx of immigrants (AACC, 2007).
The development into modern community colleges took place based on the 1947 Truman Commission guidelines that raised junior colleges to a level of meeting local community needs. The Truman Commission change the purposes to serve the community by offering affordable and accessible education locally and focus on training students so they were able to successfully find jobs after their studies (van der Linden, 2002). The functioning of community colleges to ensure practical vocational training for jobs became a “national priority” and (van der Linden, 2002, p. 26). The number of community colleges increased by 450 to approximately 900 institutions across the U.S. becoming known as “democracy’s colleges” and “open-door colleges” during the 1960s (van der Linden, 2002, p. 27). During the 1980s the emphasis was to work with local high schools in order to offer preparation for vocational training and two-year degrees (AACC, 2007).
Contemporary community colleges are focused on new purposes to meet contemporary needs for post-secondary institutes because many students look to their community college to gain an associate degree before entering four year colleges and universities (AACC, 2010). Other purposes for community colleges is to train and educate leaders and skilled workers (Eddy 2010; Frost et al., 2011). The AACC (2010) reported that 1,132 community colleges are serving approximately 11.6 million students across the U.S. (AACC, 2007).
Public and private community colleges have several major purposes.
Award associate degrees
Offer vocational jobs training and award certificate programs for jobs training
Continuing education for adults in non-degree programs
Preparation for transfer to bachelor’s degrees programs in four-year colleges, and universities (ACE, 2007).
The President of the AACC Dr. David Pierce is one of the leaders of a national organization of leaders that are part of the “leaders of the administrative diversity movement” (Evelyn, 2007). Dr. Pierce said that although figures are low now, in a few years the pay off for all the hard work of promoting minorities into leadership positions will show minorities in high level community college administration positions (Evelyn, 2007).
President of the National Council of Black American Affairs, Dr. Freddie Sandipher also feels the numbers of African Americans as presidents will increase because many are prepared for presidential candidacy (Evelyn, 2007). She points out that they have learned “how to apply and reach out to the support networks” (Evelyn, 2007). Dr Sandipher also noted that African-American candidates are willing to apply for the president’s position in troubled institutions where Whites do not show interest due to the extra challenges. “As institutions have more and more problems, minorities will be able to move into those spots,” she says.
ACE (2007) released information that showed the number of female community college presidents over time in terms of race and gender.
In the decade of the 80s female community colleges made up 7.9 percent of the community college presidents (ACE, 2007).
In 1987 19 percent of female presidents at community colleges were African American (ACE, 2007).
In 2006 28.8 percent of total college presidents were women and 23 percent of female presidents were serving community colleges were African American (ACE, 2007).
In 2006 considering the total college president positions in the US, approximately 19 percent were women of color and only 1.8 percent were African American (ACE, 2007).
The largest numbers of Presidents and CEOs are not in the Midwest; the largest numbers are in “California (10), Florida (8), Texas (4), and New York (3)” (Benjamin et al. 2010, pg. 1).
King and Gomez (2008) compared feature of American community colleges and four-year bachelor colleges.
51 percent of full-time faculty were women in the community colleges,
42 percent of the full-time faculty were women in four-year colleges offering graduates with only bachelor degrees, and
34 percent of the full-time faculty were women in colleges that graduate students with PhDs
Community college showed the largest number of female presidents, and females in high administrative positions than do four year institutions (colleges and universities) (King & Gomez, 2008). High, senior level positions in four year institutions that award PhDs showed 34 percent were filled with women whereas the in community colleges 52 percent of high, senior level positions were filled by women (King & Gomex, 2008).
Gender and Race
Gender and race have not been balanced in the traits of community college leadership; instead the introduction of women and women of color into those positions has been accomplished slowly and deliberately. Although the community colleges were nicknamed with word like ‘democracy’ and ‘open-door,’ the institutions’ “historical roots are dominated by male and elite imagery” (van der Linden, 2002, p. 27). Therefore it is not surprising that records and statistics concerning African-American female administrators in predominantly white institutions are difficult to find. The experiences of African-American women in leadership positions are mainly recorded as personal narratives or anecdotes. Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs) do keep records, but the historically white colleges and universities have admitted and recorded few into the upper administrative roles (Tyson, 2002, p. 466).
HBCUs were established by the Freedman’s Bureau after the Civil War to ensure that freed slaves were able to receive higher education. The Southern states were site of most of the HBCUs. Finally the Civil Rights movement was able to make sure that African-American students were admitted into formerly white colleges and universities in the late 1960s and through the 1970s. In that way African-American women were able to gain the necessary credentials.
Gender
Historically the position of president and senior-level administrators, have been dominated by white males leading to a male dominance cultural atmosphere (Amey, 1999). The significance of a male dominant culture is that women in the system need to adopt the culture if they have plans for career advancement (Britton, 2013). Another research study again showed that women showed significant under-representation in senior level administrative level positions (Amey & Van Der Linden, 2002). The researcher recognized the trend of hiring internally for the president’s position; 25 percent of men and 18 percent of women were hired from inside the colleges’ administrative structure for the president’s position (Amey & Van Der Linden, 2002).
African American women presidents in Community Colleges and Higher Education
Britton (2013, p. 3) used research methodology containing three branches to evaluate the barriers for African American females to gain and maintain college presidency positions in community colleges: demographic questionnaire, semi-structured interview questions, and field notes. Critical race theory and black feminist theory were applied in order to allow African American women to tell their unique stories about how they reached the position of community college president (Britton, 2013). Four African American women who had held the position o community college president participated in the study (Britton, 2013).
The researcher concluded that all four women perceived the relationship with their mentors as having a high and significant influence on their journey up the ladder to the presidency (Britton, 2013). The three main areas for mentor input were “developing a career plan, gaining advice for areas of continual growth, and being provided with networking opportunities” (Britton, 2013, p. 101).
Leadership qualities were perceived as highly significant in their rise into roles of community college president. The women described the absolutely needs to show good leadership skills when difficulties are presented and when change is taking place (Britton, 2013).
The four women also stated the importance of taking part in leadership programs to aid them in preparing for their future roles (Britton, 2013). Previous researched shows that offering leadership development programs are effective and necessary to grow diversity in community leadership positions (O’Banion, 2006).
Leadership style
Eagly and Karau (2002:573) established a role congruity theory based on the how female leaders are treated. Female leaders face to basic prejudices. Firstly the women are faced with being contrasted next to men as less favorable to fill the role of a leader. Secondly leadership behavior is judged more harshly for women than for men. A woman carrying out leadership activities is perceived “less favorably when it is enacted by a woman” (Eagly & Karau, 2002: 573). Therefore potential leaders are thought of as male, not female (Eagly & Karau, 2002: 573).
Transformational leadership is a style of leadership where employees are motivated by a leader’s model and support for make decisions and taking actions based on moral and ethical values (Burns, 1978). The leader shows employees respect because they are considered a high value for the company or institution (Antonakis, Cianciolo, & Sternberg, 2004). In fact the purpose of transformational leadership is to transform the relationship between management and employees, because motivation to contribute to the institution or company is encouraged in employees so they will remain committed to the enterprise (Antonakis et al., 2004). The relationship between leader and their staff is similar to mentoring (Eagly & Carli, 2007).
The reason that a definition of transformational leaders is important to the discussion is because women have been observed showing features of transformational leadership naturally (Paternoster, 2007). The research of Paternoster (2007) measured traits of transformational leadership and compared the results between the males and the female participants. The results showed that more females than males exhibited similar characteristics that denote transformational leadership (Paternoster, 2007). The three major points of similarity were the ability to motivate, to influence, and to improve the overall effectiveness of an institution shown by the female participants of the study (Paternoster, 2007).
On the other hand another perception of transformational leadership is its relationship with elitism (Northouse, 2007). The view is that transformational leadership can be mishandled so that the leadership component presented as heroic leadership with an emphasis on the leader as a hero and ignores the input of employees (Northouse, 2007). Community colleges are well designed for change agents but only if the leadership supports change (Cohen & Brawer, 2008; Eddy, 2010; Kezar, 2001; Townsend & Twombly, 2007)
Female versus male styles
Duties
understanding of the college’s role in economic development, especially work-force
training;
effective dealings with boards of trustees, community groups, and politicians;
understanding of the history of community colleges;
effective friend and fund-raising skills;
solid relationship and partnership building skills with individuals, groups, and businesses; and commitment to access and connection to the communities served.
Barriers to Leadership positions
The two main barriers to women placed in leadership roles are barriers to advance the promotion ladder and stereotypes (Eagly & Karau, 2002; Hopewell McNeely, Kuiler, & Hahm, 2009). The paradox is that the women are the majority of students taking classes in American universities and colleges, but leadership positions in the same institutions do not reflect the same trend (Leatherwood & Williams, 2008).
Trustee boards make the final decision on the candidate who fills the position, and most members of trustee boards are white (Evelyn, 2007). “Black candidates have practically got to walk on water” explained Dr. Reginald Wilson, ACE senior scholar (Eveyln, 2007). Dr. Jerry Sue Thornton, president of Cuyahoga Community College in Cleveland, Ohio that some boards have never had an African American candidate for president before and they “may feel uncomfortable” (Eveyln, 2007).
Dr. Liz Rocklin, director of board services for the Association of Community College Trustees said that she heard people say they want diversity but they want quality too, as if both traits cannot be filled by a minority (Evelyn, 2007). Dr. Rocklin has participated in 120 presidential searches and noted that when women and minorities show the same “imperfect records” as Whites, the boards are still more comfortable with the white candidates (Evelyn, 2007). The expectations of minorities and women are much higher than for white males according to Dr. Vaughn (Evelyn, 2007). In fact white men are not even asked the same questions such as “Will your family be willing to relocate? Will you be able to adjust to being in a predominantly White environment?'” he says. “Anything that does not relate to how well they can do the job is inappropriate” (Evelyn, 2007). On the other hand Dr. Belle Wheelan, president of Northern Virginia Community College thinks that boards know that they cannot ask that type of questions anymore (Eveyln, 2007).
African American presidents of community colleges report a higher degree of high risk and high stress than Whites in the same position (Vaughn and Weismann).
Dr. Temple who ran large urban community colleges in the Midwest, Philadelphia, Detroit and Chicago), explained “As African American presidents, we feel undetermined all the time,” he says. “Finance is a critical area. Some people just believe Blacks can’t manage money. I always feel I have to prove myself fully capable. I think every African American president feels that.”
Recommendations from the academic literature
Cook (2012) recommends that taking the traditional path to reach the position of president. Com
Summary
Women make up over 50 percent of senior administration and faculty; over 20 percent are women of color so the recruiting pool is available but presidents and senior administrators are not being pulled from this pool. The main characteristics that stood out for African Americans (male and female) for preceding taking the position of college president are that they had earned a doctorate degree and that they had previously held the position of provost or Chief Administrative Officer (Cook, 2012).
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https://books.google.gr/books?id=C_GbXyQwDcUC&pg=PT165&lpg=PT165&dq=Greek+black+sorority,+black+female+educators&source=bl&ots=gL0oSoUJMI&sig=WgO8ppGU0Z2ZvqZiNWw76yYlEp8&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjCvLiq5aHLAhXCtRQKHWLtARwQ6AEIKDAC#v=onepage&q=Greek%20black%20sorority%2C%20black%20female%20educators&f=false
https://books.google.gr/books?id=_n-g8W8YOFwC&pg=PA98&lpg=PA98&dq=age,+gender+and+race+of+community+college+presidents&source=bl&ots=b_qpXbbfns&sig=kMaC215f79iOmOkvgRMNmis5mOA&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjn36aXyqTLAhWDgg8KHVsnArUQ6AEIKTAC#v=onepage&q=age%2C%20gender%20and%20race%20of%20community%20college%20presidents&f=false
Black Greek-Letter Organizations 2.0: New Directions in the Study of African American Fraternities and Sororities
Matthew W. Hughey
Gregory S. Parks
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt2tvg48
