The Great War was the bloodiest war in world history up to that point. Many historians claim that the buildup to the war was caused my militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism (MAIN). This might be the composite indicator, but special importance should be placed on the Dual-Alliance between Austria-Hungary and the German Empire. The two came together for a myriad of reasons, most importantly a shared fear of Russian aggression, and remained together for over thirty years. Thus, an entire generation grew up recognizing that the two Germanic empires were closely allied, and the knowledge pervaded the culture of the time. The French and Russians became increasingly paranoid the central empires were conspiring against them, increasing tensions of the time. The Dual Alliance was the key that started the Great War, directly leading to a great loss of life and a severe restructuring of the international economy, while Kaiser Wilhelm’s foreign policy blunder further led to the increased tensions dispersed throughout Europe.
The forerunner to the Dual Alliance was the League of the Three Emperors, a coalition involving Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Russia. The Germans created the league to politically isolate the French in the wake of their defeat in the Franko-Prussian war, while the Austrian Empire and the Russians wanted a forum to resolve conflicts over the Balkan territories. Several of the stipulations in the treaty were similar to what would later become the Dual Alliance, such as the requirement of “benevolent neutrality” (Encyclopedia, 2004) in case another power attacked a member of the alliance. Russia went to war with the Turkish Empire in 1877, and Russia won a significant victory, while the Balkan people sought nationalistic movements. The Russians conquered a large swathe of the Balkans, which Austria naturally coveted. Chancellor Bismarck played the role of mediator during the Congress of Berlin in 1879. The congress awarded Russia small territorial concessions, and most of the Balkan areas became free independent states, becoming Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro (Mutschlechner). Russia felt betrayed, and allowed the League to expire without renewal in 1884, after which diplomatic ties between Russia and France increased, as it became clearer and clearer to Russia that Germany would always support Austrian interests.
That Germany and Austria should seek closer ties together should come as no surprise. They share a common language, similar cultural backgrounds, and similar goals, despite Austria losing a war with Prussia in 1866. Austria was also afraid of German nationalism, which might threaten the precarious balance the Hapsburgs maintained on their fragile empire, as it was composed of many different ethnic groups. Regardless, the Germans recognized the need to defend against the hostile French and the Austrians saw the potential to increase their focus on the Balkans. Thus, the Dual Alliance was formed, converting Central Europe into one block. The two empires were sandwiched between their adversaries, with France and Russia on opposite sides.
The alliance stipulated that if Russia attacks, or supports a party at war with a member of the Dual Alliance, the empires would wage war against Russia. Other than that, each party had the right to be neutral in case they were attacked by a different party. This prevented the Austrians from being pushed into a war with the French, while ensuring that the German’s eastern front would be a little bit more secure. This alliance, along with the League of the Three Emperors, reflected Otto von Bismarck’s typical foreign policy goals: isolate the main enemy, and bring together unlikely friends. This can also be seen by Italy joining the alliance in 1882.
The document states that the two empires could only come to peace with the provoking party together, meaning secret peace treaties or unilateral peace could not be established. It provides negotiation for the renewal of the treaty every five years, and if neither party wants to discuss the matter, it is automatically renewed (Duffy). It is also important to note that the treaty was kept a very valuable secret, and each party would be obligated to notify the Russian tsar threatening one of the empires that an attack on one is the same as an attack on the other, though it is unlikely the tsar of the time would have been unable to receive the hint. The Reinsurance Treaty was very important, as it showed the German government’s commitment to maintaining peace, though the overall purpose of the treaty failed.
Germany’s overall goal appears to have been increasing the reputation and power of its government. Kaiser Wilhelm II best characterized this sentiment by saying Germany deserved its “place in the sun” in a speech given in 1901 (“Kaiser Wilhelm II: A Place in the Sun, 1901”). Colonies were seen as an expression of power and might, and they also were believed to provide the home nation with valuable resources necessary to increasing economic power and might. Colonies had proven to be a good source of natural resources; the future fight over African colonies demonstrated the want and need that imperial powers had a large need for the natural resources of the area, most of them related to expanding military capacity. Indeed, the German people had aspirations for a strong naval presence as well as colonial possessions, but Bismarck opposed these sentiments as he understood that these wants would directly challenge Great Britain’s dominance of the seas. In fact, any challenge to British authority over the oceans was seen as an economic threat as well, as Britain depended on her imports and her international trade.
The Germans achieved their colonial goals in the 1880s. While European powers had forts and small areas of control in Africa before this period, the majority of the continent was relatively unconquered (Heath). The “Scramble for Africa”, as it became known, culminated in another Berlin conference, and first proposed by Portugal. The Berlin Conference of 1884 was a result of strong international rivalry between France and Great Britain in West Africa and Egypt, and Portugal, Britain, and Belgium in various other parts of the Dark Continent. Bismarck again played the role of international mediator, calling the conference together with the real intention of introducing Germany’s claims into the mix of interests. The resulting decisions during the conference partitioned Africa between all the powers involved, including the German claims to Cameroon, German East Africa, and Togoland. The Germans had simply wanted to establish a claim to these lands, but as time went on they established more of a colonial presence. Their African colonies never induced a profit, implying that the colonies were merely a status symbol for the Germans back home who believed that colonies were symbolic of great nations.
Germany negotiated a secret treaty with Russia in 1887 called the Reinsurance Treaty. Bismarck led the negotiations, and the purpose was to preserve peace between Russia and the Germanic empires. Germany and Russia agreed to remain neutral in the event that either one of them attacked a third party, provided that it was not Germany attacking France or Russia attacking Austria. The Germans also recognized Russian hegemony in Bulgaria and the Black Sea. The treaty was not renewed after Bismarck’s resignation in 1890, pushing Russia and France closer into their eventual alliance in 1891 (The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica).
It is important to note how the Dual Alliance was restructured during 1882. Italy had been offered a place at the table since the original treaty was signed, but when Tunisia became a protectorate of the French in 1881, they changed their mind. Bismarck successfully brought Italy in, and because of this Italy became to be considered a great power (Aggarwal). The stipulations of the treaty were that Italy did not have to wage war on Russia if they attacked Austria, but all would attack the French if they attacked Italy. Thus, Bismarck helped negotiate Austria’s protection along her western front. Italy would later leave the alliance and go to war against her former friends. The German government never appeared to be particularly sincere about Italy’ value to the alliance, as the Triple Entente did far more to persuade Italy about the strength and commitment of their international goals than Austria or Germany did to satisfy Italy’s need. France, Britain, and Russia began appealing to Italy after Bismarck’s removal, further demonstrating the lack of understanding the Kaiser had in regards to international politics. If Austria had relented in its campaign to dominate and divide the Balkan states, the course of history might have been very different.
Germany provided complete and total support for Austria’s ambitions. Austria had her sights set on the Balkan region, provoking Russia and the nationalist movements constantly. Furthermore, her devotion to the Balkans eventually earned the disproval of Italy, who had/has cultural ties to Albania and was not recognized to have any authority there, although Germany urged Austria to relent (Aggarwal). Austria-Hungary undermined the goals of the German Empire, and it appeared as if Austria’s primary insistence upon the alliance was to provide a security blanket for increased activity in the Balkans.
While Bismarck was in power in Germany, the relative peace was maintained, as Bismarck was respected internationally. Bismarck dramatically increased the German nationalist sentiment prevailing at the time, as it became part of the core Prussian doctrine and discipline. Bismarck’s main focus after the unification of Germany was to maintain peace and ensure that the German Empire would last, and therefore become part of the natural order in Europe, a factor that only time could provide (Barkin). Bismarck’s policies were a result of his belief that the alliances he had built would preserve peace in Europe, and he increasingly sought the preservation of the Hapsburg Empire because he considered the dissolution of the Empire a threat to the German Empire’s cultural stability; that is, he did not want several million German speaking Catholics attempting to gain admission into the German Empire. Thus, the early phase of the Dual Alliance was relatively free of serious tensions, as Bismarck’s stable hand kept the peace and deterred aggressors, as he had become a world renowned figure dedicated to keeping the peace through numerous correspondences and conferences. Bismarck also maintained a good relationship with Great Britain, as Gladstone initially led the British through a period of “splendid isolation”, and a withdrawal from affairs on the continent. Bismarck’s handling of the initial era of the détente period likely would have kept the peace, but unfortunately internal politics removed him from political power. Bismarck faced opposition at home, and he resigned in 1890 after receiving no support from Kaiser Wilhelm II, who wanted to avoid internal pressures. Once Bismarck was removed from the scene, the imperial ambitions of Germany became much more pronounced, and their militaristic ambitions inspired caution in every nation involved.
Between 1870 and 1900, military expenditure among the major European powers nearly tripled (“Militarism”). Strangely enough, it is interesting to note that the German expansion of their military also included significant increases in naval spending, in an attempt to compete with Great Britain. The rivalry between England and Germany for control over the oceans began in 1897, when Germany began its first long term shipbuilding program (“Militarism”). The German naval forces could not compete with British production, as the German were naturally divided between spending on many different necessities for warfare. This being said, the German navy made significant use of one newly refined technology: the submarine. German submarines counterbalanced the British’s powerful fleet of dreadnaughts, though the British still technically remained superior. The actions of Germany in regards to Between 1913 and 1914, Germany increased its standing army size by 170,000 men, demonstrating the pressures on the Dual Alliance to be strong in every aspect, and revealing the increasing awareness that the continent was about to explode into war.
The post-Bismarck period was marked by Kaiser Wilhelm alienating Britain after they explored the possibilities of an alliance, and by his actions that frequently insulted world leaders. Wilhelm was convinced that the way forward for the German people was through owning expensive colonies and building a navy far too big to make proper sense. The early 1900’s continued with a continuous increase in military size and strength, but also of close dealings between Austria and Germany, with both countries pressing their neighbors for concessions and giving them warnings. The German government of this period was not the peace-seeking heirs of Bismarck’s policy; rather, this was a Germany trying to assert itself. This can be demonstrated by many examples, notably the failure of the post Bismarck German government to renew the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia and the prevailing opinion among the German military elites (Junkers) that war was the only way Germany would be able to prove itself as a powerful empire that would be maintained for generations. It can be further demonstrated by the lack of care the two Germanic empires showed with regards to their southern ally, Italy; post Bismarck international politics was very arrogant and non-compromising, which directly led to Italy leaving the Triple Alliance. While war was becoming the prevailing sentiment in every country, only in Germany was the feeling so powerful so early. The German government also increased support for Austria’s domination in the Balkan sphere. Germany promised Austria that it would support Austria’s actions in the Balkans in the 1910’s, sealing the fate of the imperial powers towards war, as once the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand occurred and Austria issued its ultimatum, the German government did remarkably little to temper the flames leading towards war. Instead, they immediately began mobilizing their troops to prepare for the potential threat that turned into the Great War. Unfortunately, if the German government had been sincere in wanting peace, this would have ever happened. It is also important to mention that another outcome of the German attitude was the invasion of Belgium, which was a neutral country. The Germans invaded because the French had created a strong line of artillery and trenches along their border with Germany called the Maginot line, and the Germans went through Belgium to avoid it. This is a great display of the German attitude of the day, as they did not expect any repercussions, yet this action is what caused the British to finally enter the war to protect Belgium’s neutrality. Thus, the first German Empire fell because it was too eager to assert itself and dominate, rather than expand economically and enjoy the fruits of its existence. The post Bismarck’s only successful move was forming an alliance with Turkey to offset Italy’s loss, which though it might not have done much, it did allow for decreased pressure against Russia.
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