Answer 1
According to Stearns, the year 1000 CE can be considered as a marker from which globalization can be traced forward. Though no significant changes took place in the particular year itself, it was followed in the coming years by what can be considered as the history of globalization. Many important events had already took place before the year 1000 CE and these intensified their impact over the next centuries. One of the basis of his arguments is that before 1000CE, the factors which influences the lives of people and the social institutions were isolated and not related to each other. But after 1000 CE, interactions between the two increased significantly and the previous separation was transformed into a convergence. Stearns further explains that during this era, the existing inter regional ties, such as those between Asia and Europe, were manipulated to derive maximum benefits from them. This particular connection further led to the discovery of new lands or trade routes, thus further strengthening globalization. Other network connectivities which facilitated globalization of this era include the development of shipping industry and the cultural outreach it resulted in. As an example, Stearns refers to the voyages of Ibn-e-Batuta, whose far fledged trips helped his readers to learn more about the world, the different societies and their cultures. Certain technological advancements also strengthened the shipping industry as the voyagers now had access to larger, stronger and reliable ships. Many new navigational devices, such as the kamal and the magnetic compass, were also introduced which further facilitated travel and globalization. Stearns also mentions mapping as one of the driving forces behind globalization as mapping did not just add to the knowledge of individuals but greatly enhanced trade between distant lands. With the chances of greater interactions, the demands for various goods also increased in the world markets such as the demand for Chinese silk, Asian tea and Indian cotton.
In his work, Stearns has particularly focused on the role played by Arabs in this era, as they acted as the leaders in terms of facilitating globalization. They discovered several routes in the Indian Ocean, increased trade manifold, introduced the export and import of new items. Other important routes which were discovered around the same time include the Japanese routes to Korea and China, and the Mediterranean routes connecting the North and the South. The Arabs encouraged free and fair trade values, while upholding their ethical standards based on their religious teachings,. This exemplary attitude of the Arab merchants was what led to the mass conversion to Islam in different parts of the world, the popularity of Arabic language, spreading Arab culture and thus facilitating globalization. The Arabs also progressed in literature by providing the world with high standard literature which led to the world class global community of Muslims of the era. Several astronomical and mathematical discoveries also facilitated globalization in that era, mainly by assisting the traders and travelers. Examples of these discoveries include the Arab’s astronomical charts which offered great accuracy and the development of the number system by introduction of zero.
Answer 2
In her work, Mattelart has explained the impact that freedom of speech can have on a global scale, especially on free trade. According to Mattelart, the “network of universalization” was crucial for establishment of globalization. This is because as the communication technologies evolved, they introduced relatively sophisticated global networks which were to a great extent governed by the basic human rights. These networks led to the evolution of human rights and allowed individuals the ability to understand and fight for their very basic rights, the freedom to communicate. It was the intermingling of these human values and the communication networks or technologies which led to the formation of a network society. As an example of these values and the way in which they shaped societies, Mattelart refers to the French revolution, after which the semaphore network emerged as a provider or guarantor of democratic rights to all. Through her arguments, Mattelart has also proven that global communication networks have existed much before most individuals believe them to be. The author traces these networks as far back as the eighteenth century and provides valuable insights into how the values of enlightenment, universalism and liberalism and these ultimately led to contributions to the industrial revolution, nationalism and modern concepts of national sovereignty.
So the main values Mattelart is referring to are the values of enlightenment which brought about great changes to the existing societies as they introduced the concept of progress, freedom of trade, freedom of expression, universal rights of human beings. These values and ideas were indeed crucial for formation of a globalized or network society as communication technologies evolved with them not just in terms of complex road networks being built, the telegraph system being strengthened, but also the information technology being dispersed into previously remote areas of the world.
Mattelart has also explained how the era of enlightenment encouraged individuals to consider the values in simple activities such as trading. Further, as the communication networks strengthened, the concept of standardization also gained ground. It was the idea of networking and communication which led individuals to realize the need for International or standardized systems of communication. This led to many new developments such as standard systems of measurements throughout the world, which in turn allowed for systematic systems, such as those for tax paying to be developed.
Thus it can be concluded, that it is the convergence of cultural values and modern communication networks which linked itself to human rights and strengthened or facilitated globalization. In many eras of history, humans were denied their basic rights of expression or social organization but individuals utilized networks to communicate and thus formed a complex and inseparable relationship with human rights and globalization. Even in today’s world, this relationship between networks and human values can be seen as the driving or motivational force behind policy making at many levels in world politics. However, as evident by Mattelart’s arguments, though this link has existed historically, there is little understanding of how it operates and how it can be utilized to obtain maximum benefits for the societies. The greatest challenge is to ensure that all of humanity benefits from this network driven globalization and not just a few individuals.
Answer 3
According to Fuchs, the contemporary terms like post-industrial society are not as suitable as the phrase “transnational informational capitalism” as it more appropriately provides an analysis of the society. Fuchs has explained his views by referring to the transnational informational capitalism as the concept addresses the relationship and the collective role played by media, communication systems, social institutions, government policies and much more. So this phrase is more comprehensive in nature than the terms that have been used in the past.
Fuchs has greatly focused on the role played by capitalism in modern globalized societies and has focused on how over the last few decades, capitalism has been restructured. He refers to the form of capitalism which existed between the second world war and the mid 70s in the Western world as the Fordist capitalism. This is because this era’s capitalism had some unique defining characteristics. These include the immense hold of bureaucracy, the intervention of state in economic matters, the concept of corporation and welfare state, and the evolvement of labor unions as important political forces. Fuchs has also explained how after the 1970s, capitalist structures changed into a post-Fordist capitalism which was characterized by teamwork, decentralization and autonomation, amongst other characteristics.
So while typical terms like “network society” give the impression that humans have entered into a completely new and highly evolved society, this is not entirely true and thus the terms are not justified. Though we have before us today a greater range of information, it is mostly built up on the existing knowledge and thus is not entirely a “new” phenomenon. These inappropriate terms put forth the impression that over the last 1 or 2 centuries, the society has completely transformed. Fuch has disagreed with these terms as he believed that despite all the progress, today’s society is still in essence a capitalist one and is solely focused towards the accumulation of capital. This capital may vary in nature and be political, economic or even cultural one. Though many new qualities have emerged in our societies, but on the whole the capital structure prevails which is not acknowledged by terms like “post-industrial” or “network societies”. So instead of these terms, Fuchs has put forth the idea of describing the contemporary globalized world as “transnational informational capitalism” because computers and other technological innovations have only allowed the emergence of a globalized capitalist system. So though the strategies for accumulation may have changed today, by being transformed into cyberspace or other new technologies, the purpose still continues to be the accumulation of cultural, political and economic capital. This means that political and economic circles have had to invest in to finding new and better strategies, and in the process they may have restructured capitalism. Fuchs explains this restructuring by referring to the more fluid and dynamic nature of the economic, political and cultural space, and a more borderless world has emerged. Similarly, the number of stake holders involved has increased significantly, which has made the systems more complex due to the increasing number of nodes. The globalized contemporary society has become much more competitive in nature and this has raised segmentation and structural inequalities. Thus, considering the case put forth by Fuchs, it can be concluded that we are indeed living in a capitalist society which is restructuring and changing rapidly in its organizational form.
Answer 4
Carey has explained in her text how historically, the importance of telegraph has been neglected for a number of reasons. The author explains that it was due to this unfortunate negligence that telegraph continued to be the least studied communication technology. This negligence has been attributed to a number of factors such as the first great industrial monopoly of Western Union. Nonetheless, an understanding of the history and the development of the telegraph system can provide the reader with an in depth knowledge of the process of globalization. For instance, Carey explains how the telegraph was the first product which became the foundation for the electrical goods industry. It greatly contributed to the field of engineering and helped strengthened its foundation. Globalization could not have been possible in the absence of language development and spread and this was only made possible with the telegraph. It allowed the sharing of thoughts, ideas, languages, history, literature and knowledge, in the absence of which, globalization might not have been possible. More importantly, the telegraph allowed geographical connections to be strengthened without displacing the natural geographies.
It was with the introduction of telegraph that for the very first time, communication and transportation could be considered as two separate mediums. This is because historically, communication of messages had been dependent on the physical movement of the messenger, and it was the exploitation of this separation which eventually led to great innovations like the computer systems. This was indeed an important milestone in the history of globalization, as communication was no longer bound to geography and it also changed the concept of communication.
According to Carey, there also exists a strong and historical relationship between telegraph and ideology. For example, telegraph brought about several changes which restructured capitalism. A new set of rules, regulations, laws, institutional structures, political and economic policies were now required to justify the controls and ownership of resources. Business relations were no longer a personal matter and instead a new structure based on impersonal relations had to emerge.
Carey further explains, that universalism, which led to the concept of universal human rights, could emerge only through the effective and fast communication which telegraphs provided. Many researchers and authors have agreed that it was these universal values and rights which led to a globalized world’s emergence.
Literature also had an immense influence on globalization and formation of the contemporary network society and literature was shaped and improved with the emergence of telegraphs. Carey has proven this argument by stating that the typical and underdeveloped styles of writing, unnecessary details were no longer required and objectivity was appreciated by the majority.
Globalization has also benefitted from the historical changes in empire system which was to a great extent brought about with the telegraph. Globalization is often linked with the voyages, trade and wars of the past in which the telegraphs have played an important role. With the emergence of telegraph system, the military and naval operations could be better coordinated and managed. While during the colonial days, power had rested with domestic rulers, telegraphs brought about the imperialistic states in which capitalism prevailed. Over the centuraies, trade has become multinational and this has turned the world into a global village, none of which would have been possible in absence of telegraphs. So I would agree with Carey and acknowledge that a look into the history of telegraph systems can give valuable insights into the history of globalization and how the modern society emerged.
Answer 5
According to McCrossen, it was several centuries ago that technological innovations led to the development of the much valued pocket watches. They allowed individuals to enjoy a special sense of privacy, mobility and most importantly, connectivity. It was amongst the first wearable or portable technologies of its times. Since they came forth in the era of steam engines and telegraphs, in many ways they further encouraged a sense of adventure and discovery amongst individuals.
Though in the starting, most time showing devices were rather unpredictable and unreliable, they eventually led to the development of an Internationally agreed upon time standard and this was historically an integral and imperative step on the road to globalization.
In the 19th century the demand for time further strengthened as the trend of wearing time keeping devices prevailed and so did time sharing in a way as individuals would compare their watches with each other or the public clocks. According to McCrossen, it was in 1920 that eventually standardized time became accessible in the US, due to the radio and telephone time services.
So time can be definitely considered as a network technology as it allowed individuals to coordinate with each other, to organize their activities in a timely manner, to schedule meetings, understand the weather patterns and much more. Important events were recorded with details of the time at which they occurred, similarly radio and t.v programs or news were organized based on a time check. So time can be considered as a network technology as it brought about the demand for information and communication. This network technology in turn was the essential infrastructure or the foundation for globalization. Globalization could not have existed in the absence of knowledge sharing, interactive networking or the technological revolution, all of which are related to the “time”.
With the introduction of time, individuals were able to interact with each other in a more coordinated fashion. There came forth a new urge to communicate, to discover, share and create. It can be rightly said that “time” shaped the human interactions around the world, linking the different nodes together. In many ways, the networking brought about due to the introduction of Standardized time, provided new opportunities for world trade and markets. And so ‘time’ was not just an important era of history itself but also of the history of globalization.
Though the origin of globalization cannot be traced back to a particular time period or discovery, it is nonetheless linked to the time-based developments as they helped bring about great changes in the socio-cultural values that people assigned to the things around them. They fastened the pace in which modernity was brought about for the human civilization, increased the interconnectivity for trading activities and thus formed a new network that had never been anticipated before. This network played a great role in not just the everyday lives and activities of people but also in the commercial, military and industrial spheres.
