Introduction
Human sexuality refers to the capacity for one to have sexual feelings. It can be expressed in differently including same-sex relationships, heterosexual interactions and even relationships among different partners. The form of sexuality one follows is guided by their life teachings and influences by culture, global interaction, and religion. These factors determine how one would choose to live their life. Over time sexuality has changed especially in the past century. Freedom to express one’s sexuality has increased, and people are more willing to transform due to reduced fear of persecution and reproductive limitations. This paper will explore the impact of culture, globalization and religion on human sexuality.
Sexuality influenced by Culture
Sexuality is not only a personal matter but also a public affair; this notion is supported by the fact that intimate details are usually structured by the greater social relations and individual has (Spronk, 2009, 501). The sub-culture of young professionals especially in Africa legitimizes sex as being part of an intrinsic part of socialization in the modern personhood. Spock (2009, 503) asserts that this type of relationship exhibited by young professionals is possible due to the use of contraceptives which prevent reproduction. Sexuality for young professionals today is different due to the fact that they are after advancing their careers and having a family is seen as a secondary goal in life. Furthermore, the partner choice for such a sub-culture is based on factors such as egalitarianism, couples autonomy, ethnic compatibility and the values upheld by each partner (Sponk, 2009, 508).
Sexuality for young professionals reflects a space for men and women to re-enact masculinity and femininity through claiming sexual pleasure. The desire for sexual pleasure is the main factor driving both men and women to indulge in relationships and guides their individual sexuality. Young professionals in modern urban areas view themselves as having a cosmopolitan attitude and have over time had their sexuality transformed by the urban setting. This has involved doing away with traditional practices including female circumcision and entering into marriage for procreation purposes (Sponk, 2009, 506). Sponk (2009, 506) argues that sexuality for young professionals has become integral as part of self-expression but has also caused the same individuals to be viewed differently by their society due to their differences in sexuality and freedom. Changes in sexuality have been viewed as negative deviation from the norms of a particular culture. According to Sheppard, & Mayo (2013, 260), societies have over time constructed gender roles coupled with sexual identities. Subsequently, expectations for men and women in different cultures are guided by what their society demands of them at that particular time.
Homosexuality has largely been accepted by different cultures globally albeit with great resistance. In some cultures, though, this form of sexuality is considered taboo, in Africa homosexuality is viewed as being un-African (Nyanzi, 2013, 952). Nyanzi (2013, 952) gives an example of Uganda where an Anti-homosexuality bill was passed and was premised on dominant heterosexist discourses derived from national legislations, conservative religious interpretations and epidemiological statistics and reified tradition. Although this trend is prevalent in most African nations, homosexual individuals and transgender persons in this culture have sought to carve out their own space. They have sought to reclaim and institute non-heteronormative sexualities in an environment where such form of sexuality is abhorred (Nyanzi, 2013, 960).
Transformations in the cultural setup have also brought about mistreatment of people with different sexuality as is the case for homosexuals and transgender persons (Happel-Parkins & Esposito, 2015, 7). People who bully others based on their sexual orientation have failed to link diversity in culture and orientation due to the messages they receive from different sources including society, media and their peers (Happel-Parkins & Esposito, 2015, 7).
Sexuality is influenced greatly by the freedom certain cultures extend to the topic. Talking about one’s sexuality in most cultures is considered taboo and most parents or guardians avoid the topic even when the child is undergoing a transformative stage of life such as adolescence (DePalma & Francis, 2014, 550). In the African culture conversations about sexuality between parents and learners are hardly undertaken and when such discussion is being undertaken it is usually characterized by shouting. This prevents the learners from accessing vital information. Subsequently, in most cultures, young people’s sexuality is transformed by what they see from media platforms including television and the internet. In the Dutch culture, the same behavior is seen whereby people do not talk about sex. Culture, as a form of authoritative discourse, is invoked to justify the silence surrounding sexuality topics globally (DePalma & Francis, 2014, 550).
Parker (2009) argues that cultural influence has removed the word sex from conversations and research on sexuality, research has shifted from the sexual behavior to the cultural settings in which it takes place. Sexuality has been transformed by inter-cultural interactions so much that it is difficult to explain it or evaluate it based on natural laws coupled with empirical uniformity (Parker, 2009). Cultural influence has increased the diversity in sexuality and the discussions around modern sexuality have shifted to sexuality being guided by experiences of the human body. Wright (2000, 91) argues that silence has been used as a powerful tool by individuals seeking to cope with forbidden things in society. The author gives an example of Bolivia where silence and homosexuality go hand in hand. Furthermore, the author asserts that homosexuality is mostly discussed in tabloid articles but the more it gets personal, the less the topic is discussed.
Sexuality and Globalisation
Grewal & Kaplan (2001, 663) assert that globalisation sexual identities are imbued with power relations. Globalisation has brought people from different nations together through trade interactions and migration. These trends have made an impact on sexuality in different jurisdictions. Sexual lives are unchanging and part of the universal human experience (Hakim, 2015). Globalisation brought about transformations in sexuality, and one form of transformation began in the 1960s with the introduction of contraceptives. The introduction of such contraceptive means gave women a chance to indulge in recreational sex (Hakim, 2015). The introduction of contraceptives meant that sexuality and reproduction were separated and this led to an increase in the rate of marital sexual intercourse in the western world.
In the 1980s, the discovery of HIV/AIDS became a worldwide scare, and it prompted governments of different nations and researchers to have an interest in what private citizens were doing in their sexual life (Hakim, 2015). During this period the fear for the disease made it allowable to increase the conversation about sexuality openly and advertisements for condoms were more commonplace. Hakim (2015) argues that in the period between 1990- 2010, sex surveys carried out globally increased the amount of information about sexual practices globally. Through such surveys, the percentage of people who identified themselves as either heterosexual or homosexual became known. Subsequently, the increased sexuality surveys demolished different misconceptions both new and old (Hakim, 2015). Boyce (2014, 1212) asserts that in countries such as India sexuality practices can be associated with neoliberal political stances. This implies that sexuality perspective in some countries is reliant upon resistance towards the western world.
Arondekar (2007) states that globalization has led to terms such as third sex, homosexuality and queer being used to codify history and this terms articulate different meanings to different people globally, and they are meant to legitimize contradicting modes of understanding sexuality. Furthermore, different languages globally have led to new articulation of the structures of sexuality. Arondekar (2007) argues that uneven production of human sexuality is not necessarily a result of globalizing bio-politics but rather a disciplinary means through which sexuality is maintained and secured. Stychin (2004) argues that globalization has influenced how sexuality is viewed in the human rights spectrum.
Historically sexual orientation never used to raise any form of human rights issues, but globalization has changed this to a significant issue of discourse. In fact, human sexuality has increasingly become a human rights issue that it has affected the political decisions made by different nations. In the recent past Anti-homosexuality legislations in Africa have been met with resistance by western nations who have even threatened to stop developmental funding for nations that mistreated homosexual citizens (Stychin, 2004). Stychin further argues that sexuality has been influenced so much by globalization that different societies prefer to construct an imaginary boundary defining membership requirements for their people. Subsequently, outsiders are discriminated and viewed differently simply because of their sexuality. Furthermore, stereotypes have become more prevalent in regards to sexuality whereby certain races are viewed as having accepted a certain form of sexuality while others are seen as against different sexuality practices.
Gamson & Moon, (2004), argues that globalization has brought increased attention to the transnational political and economic processes whereby in western nations a niche market has been established in the lesbian and gay community. Globalisation has made sexuality to move outwards since it brings out the old and ever present concerns including the micropolitics of different sexual encounters and the macropolitics of regulation in regards to sexuality. Furthermore, through globalization sexuality has been led to development of sexual tourism. Alexeyeff, (2008) asserts that tourism has been viewed as a form of leisure imperialism ad a product of the neo-colonial relations between developing and developed nations globally.
Subsequently, in order to attract more tourists, different nations have introduced new packages that depict their nations as viable and promising sexual vacations. Sexualised images of females have become ubiquitous and signifiers of a paradise destination and sensual exhibitionism (Alexeyeff, 2008). The images can be seen as a form of a heterosexual venture by men. Furthermore, sexual analogy coupled with femininity is ever present in the local discussion on the impact on tourist destinations. The boundaries guiding the tourism industry and sexuality has increasingly diminished since the depiction of women as sensual objects meant to attract male tourist has become common in places such as Thailand, Cook Islands and other destinations globally.
Sexuality and Religion
Shipley (2015) argues that religion and sexuality are always viewed as conflicting terms in the general public sphere globally. Religious officials have in the past especially in the 1990s opposed the inclusion of homosexuals in the leadership of the church and even being part of the congregation. Shipley argues that religious voices have been vocal in opposing marriage between same sex individuals.
The religious groupings have also been adamant in legislative changes to accommodate changes in sexuality. They base their arguments from the laws and words written in the different religious literature including the Bible and the Quran. An emphasis on the opposition raised by religious groups towards sexuality tends to misrepresent religion itself (Shipley, 2015). It is apparent that not all religious groups and individuals are unified towards having equality in regards to gender and sexuality. Due to this arguments and discourse the voice of the sexually ‘others’ who area also staunch to their religion has become more loud in the public context. Currently, there are more churches accepting same-sex marriages among their churches.
According to Zakaria (2016), sexual freedom albeit rare for the Muslim woman is made acceptable when sex is viewed as a commodity which a woman can choose to consume. The author argues that objectification of the Muslim female as mere sexual objects could be replaced with the objectification of sex and further sexualisation. Gutiérrez, (2012), argues that sexuality in the Muslim religion has been largely influenced by the teachings of Muhammad and the argument he made towards couples pleasuring each other. Sexuality in Islam is largely contained in the marriage institution since it is the only institution and union sanctioned for human erotic pleasure. According to Gutiérrez, (2012) sexual practices that defile the sanctity of marriage include bestiality and fornication. These sexual practices still encounter much condemnation from the Muslim society in the modern day. According to Imam Muhsin from Cape Town, the Muslim community is being influenced by the sexual diversity happening globally, but most of the members prefer to remain silent on such topics especially to those related with homosexuality.
Turner & Stayton, (2014) state that religious leaders and the clergy are in the modern day facing increased sexual needs, demands and concerns from their different faith communities. Sexuality is today difficult to define for the religious people and that conflicts regarding sexual issues among different religious denominations are increasing and making it difficult for the clerics to deal with (Turner & Stayton, 2014). The authors argue that sexuality changes in the modern century are part of the public debate and this is impacting negatively on the religious leadership and the interaction between religious followers.
The first point of contact for a faith member is usually the clergy especially when they encounter sexuality issues. This makes it difficult for the religious leadership to provide advice on persons who are being transformed by society but still seeking religious guidance. Religious traditions normally affirm that human sexuality is divinely bestowed and exclusively for procreation and expressing love for one’s partner (Turner & Stayton, 2014). Sexuality is meant to celebrate the beauty of creation and that through sexuality human beings can be able to affirm rightful relationships and closeness to God. This ideology guiding sexuality in the religious settings continues to face challenges especially with the freedom people have towards expressing their sexuality as enshrined in the legislation of a nation.
Conclusion
Sexuality is no longer an issue regarding sex alone but rather encompasses different aspects including the orientation of a person, the choice a person makes in regards to whom they love and the cultural expectations. Different cultures, religions and the advent of globalization have influenced and transformed sexuality. More people are able to express their sexuality due to globalization. The human rights freedom has extended to the needs of individuals sexuality. In the same context, sexuality has transformed the objectification of women as sexual objects. There is now more images of women as sexual objects in the media, and this is meant to act as a marketing tool. This is as a result of globalization which has permeated the political and economic field in society. Furthermore, sexuality has transformed the religious setting which is largely guided by laws that were set in previous eras. More religious persons are seeking sexuality freedom that has been accorded to them by the modern society. This continuously brings conflict between their desires and religious teachings.
Religion advocates for sexuality that is meant to provide offspring and promote love between different persons. Unfortunately, individuals of the same sex seeking to show their love for each other are prevented by the religious teachings they follow. This has made it difficult for religious leadership which is charged with guiding the faithful. On the other hand sexuality in the different cultures globally is influenced by the practices of those particular groupings. Culture influences what is acceptable by a particular group regardless of the individual desires.
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