Introduction
This paper analyzes the findings and emerging hypothesis of five peer -reviewed articles. The articles address three main topics. These topics are negative affective responses, breakup of romantic relationships and self-esteem. It was established that depressive symptoms were the intersecting issue in all the articles reviewed. Interpersonal and academic factors were found to have links with depressive symptoms in college students. Besides, one study established people in an intimate relationship were less likely to develop depressive symptoms. Depression was a common problem for people who had experienced romantic relationship breakups. Again, self-esteem was found to be a predictor of depression.Background and Findings of the Studies The first research article by Erica Kalkut, Elizabeth Tuminello, Jana Wingo, Duke Han and Josefina Asconape investigates the relationship between depressive responses, executive function and adjustment in university female students. Seventy-seven university students participated in the study. The students were screened to ensure that they had no history of illness or disorders that could have affected their cognitive functions. A 21-Item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) was employed in the assessment of depressive symptoms. BDI-II assesses somatic, affective, and cognitive symptoms of depression. The BDI-II was self-administered by the participants. Students who reported depressive symptoms in minimal, mild, moderate and severe ranges were 66, 6, 3 and 2 respectively. The figures translated to 86%-minimal, 8%-mild, 4% -moderate and 2%-severe. Moreover, the researchers established that depressive symptoms emerged as an important factor for students who reported interpersonal problems. Besides, depression found to be a predictor of self-esteem. Students who reported more depressive symptoms reported the more self-esteem problems. The second research article by Patricia Otero, Fernando V´azquez, and Olga D´ıaz examined the relationship between psychological distress experienced by female college students and academic and socio-demographic factors. A sample of 1,043 college female students from Galicia Spain was recruited to participate in the study. Hence, the sampling error was ±2% at 95% confidence level. The researchers used the revised Spanish Symptom Checklist-90 to assess psychological distress in the women students. The SCL-90 was rated on 5-Points Scale, and self-administered. .. The symptoms measured by SCL-90 included hostility, interpersonal sensitivity, anxiety and depression. The study established that female college students reported high scores in obsessive-compulsive, depression, and interpersonal sensitivity. Lower scores were reported in psychoticism and phobic anxiety. Younger college females aged 2o years and below reported higher scores in, hostility and interpersonal sensitivity than their counterparts aged 20 years and above. .Another interesting result was that college students who were not having any intimate partners at the time of study reported had higher scores on interpersonal sensitivity and depression. The third research article by Miguel Diego, Osvelia Deeds, Martha Pelaez, Tiffany Field, and Jeannette Delgado studied behaviors and negative emotions associated with breakup distress. A sample of 283 university students participated in the study. Of these participants, 186 reported relationship breakups within the 3.6 months before the study commenced. Scores from Breakup Distress Scale was used to divide the break up group into high and low break up distress. He high distress group had more participants than low distress group. The Center for Epidemiology Studies-Depression Scale (CES-D) was used in the evaluation of the number of times students experienced depression symptoms. The State Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and The State Anger Inventory (STAXI) were also used to assess the intensity of anxiety and anger symptoms. It was established that students who had higher scores in Breakup Distress Scale had high scores in CES-D, STAI and STAI compared to student who had low scores. This finding indicates that the high distress experienced depressive symptom more often and had elevated anxiety and anger intensities. Moreover, the high distress groups were less likely to forgive. They also had higher scores in excessive use of alcohol and disorganized behaviors. The fourth research article also authored by Miguel Diego, Osvelia Deeds, Martha Pelaez, Tiffany Field, and And Jeannette Delgado looked into intrusive thoughts as a key determinant of breakup distress. The authors used the same sample of 283 university students. Out of this sample 186 reported relationship break ups. The break up group was divided into high and low distress groups using Breakup Distress Scale scores. A 12-Items Breakup Symptoms and Solutions Scale was used to assess intrusive thoughts, social support, extracurricular and somatic symptoms. Intrusion Questionnaire and Difficulty Controlling Intrusive Thoughts Scale (DCITS) were used in the evaluation of various aspects of intrusive thoughts. On the other hand, The Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory (PTCI) was employed in the assessment of negative awareness of self and world. The researchers found out that higher distress group also had higher scores in intrusive thought scales. They also had problems controlling or managing their intrusive thoughts. Meaning, intrusive thoughts were common distressing experiences after break ups. The fifth research article by Chws Eisenbarth of Weber State University examined how self-esteem relates to depression, stress and coping. The researcher recruited 713 participants; 296 males and 417 females from a university based in Northwest region of United States. He used the Perceived Stress Scale to assess nonspecific appraised stress while stress responses were assessed using Brief COPE. Self-Esteem Scale and Depression Scale were used to assess self-esteem and depression symptoms respectively. The researcher established that perceived stress and self-esteem accounted for 40% and 19% of the variance in depressive symptoms. Consequently, self-esteem played a role in depressive symptoms experiences. A person who does not think he or she is worth, competent or significant is likely toe experience high-stress levels. Besides, he or she is likely to turn to avoidance behaviours.Analysis of Emerging Hypotheses According to the findings of the research by Patricia Otero, Fernando V´azquez, and Olga D´ıaz College students who were not in intimate relationship had higher scores in depression and interpersonal sensitivity that their counterparts who were not in any relationship. There is a large literature on the relationship between intimacy and depression. Most of the studies done on the subject have established that the two constructs are negatively associated. Intimate relationships play very critical role in all people’s lives. For this reason, almost 90% of individuals living in United Kingdom marry (Richards & O'Hara, 2014). A study by Waltz et al (1998) revealed that patients who reported less intimate interactions with their spouse had higher depression scores compared with those who were in intimate relationship (Rodin, Craven & Littlefield, 1991). Stone and Aneschenel (1982) found that the absence of intimacy contributed to the development of depressive symptoms (Waring, 2013). Another study by Harris, Brown, and Copeland established that women who had strong intimate relationship with their men had a lower likelihood of developing depression (Klerman, 2004). All these findings corroborate the hypothesis that intimacy reduces depression. A critical review of the five articles reveals that depressive symptoms are commonly experienced by college students. However, the intensity of depression varies according to the demographic, family, interpersonal, academic, and socioeconomic factors. The findings of these studies can be supported by previous studies done on depression. A study by Angold et al established that persons from lower socioeconomic groups were more likely to experience depressive symptoms than those from middle and upper-income groups (Dobson & Dozois, 2008). Mintz established a positive correlation between depression and gender role conflicts in university men (Cochran & Rabinowitz, 1999). Another study by Leadbaeater, Auerbath, Quinlan, Hart and Blatt found out that females had had high scores in interpersonal factors that contributed to stress (Sussman, Steinmetz & Peterson, 1999). A research by Kennedy et al (1990) established that the risk of depression was elevated in people who were living alone (Katona, 1994). Himmerlfarb (1984) found out that the depression in men was highest between the ages 70 and 85 (Schaie, & Lawton, 1991). The studies discussed above indicate that the depression is influenced by numerous external and environmental factors. Nevertheless, there are few factors are prevalent in people with common gender, race, school. In college students, interpersonal factors account for the largest variance in depression. The relationship between self-esteem and depression emerged in three out of the five research articles. Chws found out that self-esteem accounted for 19% of the variance in depressive symptoms. He concluded that self and depression were correlated. In other words, depression could be predicted by self-esteem. This relationship is rather straightforward to understand. People with high self-esteem tend to have less likelihood of becoming depressed irrespective of other factors. A number of studies have also found a positive association between self-esteem and depression. Watson et al (2002) found that individuals with high self-esteem experienced less depressive symptoms (Kernis, 2013). Chodoff (1973) argued that individuals worst affected by depression showed higher fluctuations in self-worth (Leary & Tangney, 2003). Self-esteem issues are closely related to depressive symptoms in overweight and obese. People with high body mass index tend to show great dissatisfaction with their bodies. Consequently, they have low self-esteem that is associated with depression. Wadden et al established body image dissatisfaction was positively correlated to depressive symptoms.Conclusion The five studies reviewed had all the critical elements of scientific research. These included objectives, methodology, results, data analysis, and discussion. The studies used quantitative approach to explore the research topics. They used descriptive statistics and hypothesis testing techniques to describe the variables and test their relationship. Again, the studies produced important findings on depression, romantic relationship, and self-esteem. One study confirmed a positive relationship between depressive symptom and interpersonal factors in college students. Another, study established that female college students aged 20 years and below had higher scores in hostility and interpersonal sensitivity. These findings had depression as the central idea. Depression symptoms were experienced by college students who had experienced breakups and those with interpersonal issues. Common depression symptoms covered by the articles included intrusive thoughts, anger, hostility, anxiety and stress. Three important hypotheses emerged from analysis of the article. The first hypothesis was that depression in college students was caused by interpersonal and academic factors. The second hypothesis was that intimate relationship lowered likelihood of development of depressive symptom. The third hypothesis was that self-esteem and depression were correlated.
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