Abstract
Adult learning and education is an extremely complex and challenging branch of education, as the restraints of time management, study skills and anxiety, among other factors, can hamper the possibility of adult learners to receive the education they need. Given these constraints, a humanistic approach to learning is recommended, as it focuses on the individual needs of the adult learner and grants them greater autonomy in the learning process. This is best exemplified in self-directed learning, a process that offers adult learners the ability to cultivate their own skills, and work at their own pace and under their own direction. While there remain a number of challenges to self-directed learning as a practice, particularly with the difficulty of codifying such a highly personalized learning approach, the concept itself remains incredibly sound. Self-directed learning, when used properly, offers a more effective means for adult learners to overcome their issues with time management, anxiety about skills, and more.
Adult learners in education have a particularly unique set of challenges when achieving their education: issues like time constraints, divided attention, and anxiety about the prospect of returning to education all have decided effects on the way these adult learners learn (Zinn, 1990). Time management and study skills are frequent issues with adult learners, particularly because of their comparative inability to attend structured classes in a way that would give them the structure and focus of a college-aged learner with fewer responsibilities (Zinn, 1990). The study of andragogy (the development of education techniques specifically tailored to adults) is comparatively new (Merriam, 2001). To that end, effort must be expended to find new ways to see to the unique learning needs of adults, who are already fully developed in terms of self-concept, know their social roles, and must be internally (rather than externally) motivated to learn (Merriam, 2001). To that end, self-directed learning may be a possible solution for this issue, as humanistic learning theories provide a greater sense of freedom for learners and educators alike (Garrison, 1997).
Adult Education
Despite the existence of a vibrant body of study in the field of adult education, there is still much more study required in the field. Many preconceptions exist about the ways in which adults learn and the ways they can fit study time into their already-busy schedules. These myths can subsequently build up to a set of preconceptions that can hinder adult learners in the education process. To begin with, despite popular conception, adults do not innately take to self-learning simply because of their active choice to participate in adult education, and there is not necessarily an innate joy taken in the process of adult learning (Brookefield, 1995). In reality, many adult learners become frustrated by the education process, moreso than their younger counterparts; the decision to attend education later in life is merely an indicator of a desire to learn, rather than their capability for easy learning. The higher time demands on adults in their thirties and forties makes this even worse, given family and occupational responsibilities that take up more energy and availability in their schedule.
Lack of time is one of the biggest obstacles to overcome for learners in adult education. As compared to teenage and young adult learners, adult learners have an exponentially higher number of more intense responsibilities to take on. These typically include full-time jobs, spouses and children, which in any combination can drain a larger amount of time normally slated for studying by other learners (Brookfield, 1995). Adult learners have even more difficulty in military contexts, as civilian adult learners have a comparatively higher level of freedom to create a work-life balance; military officers are virtually always committed to their superior officers and subsequent duties (Brookfield, 1995). No matter the context, adult learners have an extremely difficult time finding the proper ways to manage their time to get the most out of their adult education. Effective solutions for adult learners must, by necessity, include incentives for adult learners to practice more effective time management, which would improve overall academic outcomes and study skills.
Because of these reasons and more, adult education is often beset with low retention rates (Galbraith, 2004). Because adult education is often perceived as less intrinsically important to quality of life than in adolescence and young adulthood, many adult learners can see adult education as less viable and important as a priority in their lives (particularly considering the more practical responsibilities that must be dealt with by adults) (Kerka, 1995). Adults often stop their higher education because of the overwhelming presence of their adult responsibilities, forcing them to give up their classes or education. Furthermore, adults can often feel a sense of isolation and removal from others in higher education – this can happen through online classes, where there is no physical classroom, or even in physical classrooms where the age gap in learners can make adult learners feel segregated from the normal college population (Kerka, 1995). Adult learner retention might increase to a substantial degree if methods for offering better study skills and a less alienating higher education experience were found.
Humanistic Education Theory
In order to address these issues, humanistic education theory-based solutions must be utilized. Humanistic education is a branch of education theory that is chiefly derived by the psychological concepts of Abraham Maslow, Rudolf Steiner, Carl Rogers, and more (Underhill, 1989). With humanistic approaches, the students themselves are engaged in the learning process, creating a comprehensive approach to learning through the incorporation of social skills, self-awareness, and creative health, among other things. Humanistic education carries the objectives of increasing a student’s self-esteem, autonomy, and goal-based skills; often, this requires the incorporation of the humanities, such as literature, art, grammar, music and philosophy (Underhill, 1989).
Humanistic education is centered around a series of principles, first among these being the concept of control, or choice. When a student progresses in their education, they are asked to find ways to control their decisions and their learning, emphasizing the goals they have in the future and creating behavioral expectations that they must meet every day. Rather than focusing on a comprehensive education, humanistic education emphasizes a more specialized set of subjects based around what they want to study in particular. This strategy allows humanistic educators to make motivation very simple for students, since they are simply studying the things they like. Learning in this environment becomes more effective due to this low barrier for motivation (Underhill, 1989).
Felt concern is another principle of humanistic education, as the mood and concerns of a student is chief among the priorities of a humanistic learner (Underhill, 1989). This principle acknowledges the difficulty of getting a student to learn something they do not want to learn, at least at that time; if a student is not in the mood to learn a subject, the educator must make it a priority to contribute positively to the mood of the student in order to ensure that they are more willing to learn. Humanistic learning integrates feelings and emotions more ardently into their curricula, as learning requires both emotional and educational openness. Humanistic teachers do not separate cognitive and affective areas, instead merging them into practice that makes them a combination of teacher and counselor (Underhill, 1989). Autonomy is a central component of this, as it allows the student the ability to direct their own learning to something that suits their mood or preferences at that time.
One of the biggest challenges with adult learning from a humanistic perspective is reconciling the already-established sense of self an adult has cultivated through their life experiences with the new sense of self they wish to cultivate in their learning (Shavelson and Bolus, 1981). This is personified in the idea of self-concept, and humanistic teachers must find ways to enhance it in the course of adult education. While younger learners are more malleable in terms of changing their self-perception and behaviors, this becomes a much greater challenge in adult learners whose perception of themselves are more fixed. To that end, greater autonomy must be granted to these learners in order to better motivate them and produce greater outcomes.
Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
In order to address these problems with adult education, specifically those of motivation, time management, and self-concept, self-directed learning (SDL) may be ideal. Self-directed learning is a process that has constantly changing and shifting goals, but the major principles are these: that the learner should be able to direct themselves to their own learning outcomes, becoming the primary driver of their education. Self-directed learners take greater responsibility for their own learning, ideally becoming more proactive in their education (Merriam, 2001). Self-directed learning also fosters ideas of transformational learning, which inherently involves critical reflection on the part of the learner as a way to improve their own educational skills (Merriam, 2001). Finally, self-directed learning is meant to promote “emancipatory learning and social action,” as many adult learners gain an education in order to translate this knowledge and skill into social or political action (Merriam 2001, p. 9). While these goals are constantly shifting and changing depending on the learner, these are the three major trends found in the process.
Self-directed learning is such a holistic process that many different models have been created to help facilitate it – from linear models to more interactive and holistic ones as the discipline has expanded (Merriam, 2001). The most interactive SDL models become, the learner and how they learn become much more malleable as processes – mapping how SDL is processed inherently involves all of these factors and more. Many instructors can use these models to help guide self-directed learning, such as the Staged Self-Directing Learning (SSDL) model, in which learners determine their own comfort level and readiness for a subject, but instructors simply “match the learner’s stage with appropriate instructional strategies” (Merriam 2001, pp. 9-10).
One possible comprehensive model of education is established by Garrison (1997), in which many of the aforementioned issues with motivation and time management may be addressed. Garrison’s model incorporates self-management, motivational and self-monitoring dimensions to improve the prospects of self-directed learning in a comprehensive and fulfilling way (Garrison, 1997). In this model, students must be motivated to enter a task, which they can then conduct though self-monitoring (cultivating a sense of responsibility for themselves) and self-management (control of one’s actions and activities, setting goals, using metacognition) (Garrison, 1997). In this way, self-directed learning is achieved, as the adult learner makes the most of what motivation they have to learn in the most effective and efficient way possible.
This model in particular addresses many other factors that can become challenges in self-directed learning. First is expectancy, which is the “belief that a desired outcome can be achieved,” which can come about as a combination of personal and contextual characteristics that affect whether or not learners achieve their goals (Garrison 1997, p. 27). In essence, adult learners are beset with expectations about whether or not they will learn something, which affects motivation, and therefore their ability to self-manage and self-monitor. Anticipated control is another issue, especially for adult learners; this concept “reflects the perceived ability and opportunity to exercise control over the learning process” (Garrison 1997, p. 28). When adult learners can anticipate a high level of control, they are more likely to commit themselves to self-directed learning. Therefore, following Garrison’s model helps to address these issues and further adult learner motivation.
Self-directed learning may be the most effective solution to provide a humanistic means of effective adult education. Zinn notes that “Humanists are highly motivated and self-directed learners; responsibility to learn is assumed by the learner. The humanist educator facilitates learning but does not direct learning. The educator and learner are 'partners'" (Zinn, 1990). In these scenarios, teachers and adult learners are on far more equitable standing on things like curriculum development, individualized learning, and group assignments. In self-directed learning, students and teachers learn together, as the instructor is much looser in his grip over the classroom.
Self-directed learning is not without its pitfalls, as there are some disadvantages that may hamper adult learning. According to Underhill (1989), adult learners taking a humanistic perspective can have a hard time managing change within themselves, instead taking on “patterns of teaching” that are difficult to change (p. 259). Adult learners can often run into issues relating to the power relationship between teachers and students in classrooms, as neither are entirely sure who holds the authority within the classroom. As such, teachers must be willing to expand their goals to ensure that they act as an example for the student to follow (Underhill, 1989).
Other issues of SDL are extremely prevalent throughout the practice. There are still some gaps in SDL research, including the determination of effective ways to maintain a sense of momentum for adult learners’ self-directed learning over longer periods of time, the ways the process changes as learner’s skill sets increase, power and control issues in formal instructional settings that apply SDL, and more (Merriam, 2001). As such, there is still a great deal to learn about self-directed learning, as it is still a relatively new practice in which many critical elements of SDL have not been fully implemented to a sufficient degree to determine their effectiveness.
Conclusion
Adult learning and education is an extremely complex and challenging branch of education, as the restraints of time management, study skills and anxiety, among other factors, can hamper the possibility of adult learners to receive the education they need. Given these constraints, a humanistic approach to learning is recommended, as it focuses on the individual needs of the adult learner and grants them greater autonomy in the learning process. This is best exemplified in self-directed learning, a process that offers adult learners the ability to cultivate their own skills, and work at their own pace and under their own direction. While there remain a number of challenges to self-directed learning as a practice, particularly with the difficulty of codifying such a highly personalized learning approach, the concept itself remains incredibly sound. Self-directed learning, when used properly, offers a more effective means for adult learners to overcome their issues with time management, anxiety about skills, and more.
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