In generic sense of the term, a "genetically modified organism" is a living organism whose genome has been altered artificially. This understanding includes all the possible ways of modifying the genetic information, from crosses method for genetic engineering tools. From a legislative point of view, a large number of countries and organizations use a more restrictive definition in reference to that specified in the Cartagena Protocol, which means "living modified organism" "any organization living with a novel combination of genetic material. " However, this definition is not universally recognized. Some countries, including the United States, do not make this use of modern biotechnology discriminant notion. The United States considers that a GMO is organization that has undergone a "change in the genetic material, either through conventional breeding, genetic engineering of mutagenesis." Some countries, such as Canada, even if they accept the definition of "restrictive" apply to "GMO" the same rules as that course for the products modified by conventional methods. The genetic modification of plants is often seen as an ultimate means of which the humanity will be able to fight against environmental insults, such as disease or herbicides. Many crops resistant to viruses and herbicides have been introduced successfully, so we must tackle more complex projects.
One of them, of changing grain to fix nitrogen, is a kind of Holy Grail of biotechnology in culture. It is unlikely that we will succeed in the near future, to recreate artificially the complex relationship between bacteria that fix nitrogen and the host plant. However, the production of certain cereals such as rice has doubled over the last generation. Coordinated efforts at the international level should also enable biotechnology to help scientists continue to improve crop qualitatively and quantitatively. This is essential if we are to both meet the demands of a global population increasingly large and varied and overcome the challenges of reducing available arable areas and decreasing water resources. Although studies have been conducted on characteristics governed by a single gene, a long-term research on more complex traits controlled by many genes is underway. This includes the possibility of incorporating plants automatic and precise indicators that would signal to the farmer how much fertilizer and water shortage, and exactly when this contribution is necessary. In this way, we could avoid wasting expensive and scarce resources, which would then be made to the plant in accordance with its needs. Efforts are being made to create crops that resist drought and that would obviously be useful to farmers in areas where rainfall is low. It is clear that technical increasingly sophisticated, research will also look towards modified plants for their nutritional qualities and their beneficial effect on health. It will then be added to conventional foods marketed specifically as a commodity for humans and animals, the specific characteristics that meet specific needs. These products will be enhanced to improve the health and nutrition; they possess better taste and allow new industrial processes for preparing to emerge. The new prospects for research and development suggest the emergence of a host of promising new products.
Specific developments include the reduction of allergenicity of foods and reducing mycotoxin levels, potent toxins, often immunosuppressive, as fungi deposited in the seeds during their growth period. In Japan, for example, Nagoya University, researchers have managed to reduce from 70 to 80 percent the rate of the main allergenic protein in rice by incorporating a gene called antisense that blocks the production of this protein in the plant. Producers also want to reduce other potentially anti-nutritional or toxic molecules that the plant produces (Chao, 2015). Other works are focused on increasing the nutritional value of foods involve changing their oil properties, proteins and carbohydrates, and their content of vitamins and minerals (eg, vitamins C and E and beta-carotene in fruits and vegetables). Priorities also include increasing digestibility and development of food aid in the prevention of diseases both infectious and physiological. Foods that present more quality health will be given priority. For example, it likely will develop products with embedded vaccines that will reduce cholesterol and the risk of cancer.
Food Biotechnology is sometimes critical, saying little, if not no, cultures that have emerged have benefited farmers in developing countries. Several innovations among new prospects could be useful. For example, it is in the process of developing types of fodder containing more calories, which will improve livestock production. Cultures that are the staple food of the poor, such as sweet potato and cassava will be modified to resist the virus. Some could also be improved from the nutritional point of view. Another expected short-term development is that of a rice having an improved protein profile that can include a higher rate of an essential amino acid, lysine. This could help reduce childhood blindness in China just caused by lysine deficiency.
Genetically modified organisms are plants or experimental animals that have been genetically engineered in a laboratory with DNA from other plants, animals, bacteria, viruses. The two main objectives sought by this change are: seed producers change their seeds to make them more resistant to herbicides, seed producers alter plants to contain an integrated manner pesticides. There is a large ongoing debate now about these genetically modified foods. Many people want to avoid GMOs as studies conducted on animals showed changes in the internal structure of the cell, abnormal growth of the tumor, and observed unexpected death. So what exactly are the benefits and disadvantages of this type of food?
Supposed Benefits
Help to medical research and vaccination. Genetically modified organisms likely earned their place in medical research. The proof of this is that many diseases are treated through bacteria-based drugs altered in genes. Such are the cases of diabetes with insulin or various treatments for growth hormone; not to mention the first gene therapy company in April 2000 in France and has cured many children victims of a major humanitarian deficit. Medicines and vaccines are often expensive to produce and sometimes not available in third world countries (Deswina, 2015). Researchers have developed edible vaccines that will be integrated with tomatoes and potatoes. These vaccines are much easier to transport, store and administer than traditional injectable vaccines. For now, this type of edible vaccine is still awaiting permission from governments to be inserted into plant genes. The impact of these products on health is often explained by the effects of golden rice. It has been found that it was sufficient to reintroduce rice pruned provitamin A - initially present in the shell - to address significant visual disturbances. Obviously, trans-genetic manipulations on a particular natural product can help the population of a whole country victim of a nutritional deficiency. And of course, if they gave birth to a diet that is balanced, low calorie and better in taste and nutrients, it would be a boon for those who follow a weight loss diet.
Moreover, proponents of genetic diet for health or cosmetic purposes claim that genetically modified organisms degrade naturally during the digestion process. Fruits and vegetables which genes have been altered deteriorate in the same way as traditional foods: mechanically by chewing and mixing done in the stomach first, and also chemically Contact digestive enzymes. As for derivative products containing GMOs such as flour, sugar, tomato paste, etc. degradation can even be done during the production phase and preparation before the product is ingested. The molecules present in a given Genetically-modified food are transformed after swallowing amino acids, nucleic acids, and other simple compounds and are no longer functional. The principle of "substantial equivalence" is then established. According to this concept supported by the OECD since 1993 in fact, it is possible to quantify the harmful effects of GMOs on health in the same way as those of so-called conventional food (Parul, 2011). In other words, a genetically transformed product holds the same food safety as its natural counterpart from the moment their chemical composition is similar. However, this is not generally true given the fact that finally, no survival test of transgenic molecules in the stomach or the intestinal tract has been shown conclusively to date. Furthermore, there are added substances in genetically-modified foods that are not present in the original conventional foods. The equivalence is not total, these compounds may, therefore, present toxicological and nutritional risks.
Let us take the example of maize. This is the most important cereal and widely cultivated in developed countries. However, maize cannot be reproduced without human assistance. It is also vulnerable to many pests and diseases animals. Genetically modified maize is in turn much stronger. Plants and animals that were subjected to a modification in genes can become more resilient to unexpected diseases. Improving the overall quality and taste with the modification of food, flavorings can be improved. The peppers can become more spicy or sweet. Corn may become softer. The flavors difficult to bear can become more acceptable. Improving the quality of food is also visible at the shelf life. A tomato, for example, can be designed to stay fresh longer, prolonging its life in the supermarket.
Vitamins and minerals may be added to foods GMOs through genetic modifications in order to provide more nutrition benefits to those who eat them. This is particularly common in countries which do not always have access to the necessary nutrients. A utility advanced by advocates of an agriculture based on genetically modified foods is that they can potentially allow obtaining higher yielding crops that could help feed more people in developing countries. The transformed plants can be genetically engineered to withstand climate fluctuations and another extreme. This means they can provide sufficient yield and quality in spite of the severe weather, a bad time. This resistance is involved in increasing the yield. Note also improved tolerance to drought, as well as salinity. A gene for gray mangrove, Avicennia marina, has been genetically implanted in tobacco plants, making them able to tolerate stress caused by soil salinity and show good tolerance to other ionic stress. Gradually, as the global population and land area required house the increasing population, the less room for agriculture fields. Farmers, therefore, need to grow their plants in areas previously unsuitable for cultivation. GMOs are also cited as cheaper, despite the higher initial cost of seeds. The reason is that they reduce the need for pesticides and herbicides, in addition to reducing the labor required to grow the plants successfully, which should translate into higher profits.
Health Disadvantages and Risks
If the certified presence of hazards with genetically modified organisms, as their absolute absence moreover, has not been demonstrated to date, this does not prevent the latter have real impacts on health. Indeed, extensive studies, such as project "Quality Of Life" led by ENTRANSFOOD, have enabled to evaluate the food safety of GMOs and their effects on consumer health and beauty. Various methodologies have been developed to quantify the risk of metabolic disorders caused by food and transgenic products as a whole and individually. The elements taken into account concern for others even small changes as the product is consumed as the food supplement in a balanced diet or whether it is a staple food. Similarly, a qualitative comparison between the food product and the conventional GMO is conducted to assess the nutritional implications of the food. As a result, the potential disadvantages of genetically modified organisms depend on two factors: transgenic molecules and the final consumer, the latter holds normal physiological and morphological criteria or whether instead of breastfeeding women or pregnant, d a child or an infant or a victim of chronic diseases. The most worrying impacts cited are: the product's toxicity, increased resistance to antibiotics and allergenic effects. Toxic substances are present in most plants that we consume. Even natural products deemed "healthy" are toxic, and it seems an exaggeration to speak of toxicity on GM foods. Especially it is rare that the introduced gene is toxic because it is intended for a food product. However being a negligible content in plants, substances called "toxic" does not have any harmful impact on proved health. However, even if the food "genetically modified" ingested does not produce itself of toxic substances, it is possible that the gene insertion process comes to disturb or alter the natural functioning of the plants and the risk of increase the level of toxicity thereof. In addition, GM plants have the particularity to produce their own insecticide called "protein", which could result in some degree of health problems associated with increased toxicity. Resistance to antibiotics: during a gene introduction into a plant, the biotechnologists routinely using antibiotic resistant transgenic molecules as markers. This process is necessary because it helps to identify the integration or not the new gene in the genome. If the plant survives, it means that it has incorporated the antibiotic resistance gene. But from the time that consumes the product changed in the genes, the risk that the bacteria of the digestive system adopt this gene. This practice is then to avoid as much as possible to protect the consumer. Allergy attacks are not rare cases. In fact, food allergies affect about 2% of adults and 8% of children ("Retraction: GMO debate: inconclusive", 2013). Allergic reactions can occur when a harmless protein on the principle comes stimulate the immune system. The introduction of new molecules in food can then cause an allergy for some people, this reaction comes from a substance known as allergenic or a previously unknown protein in the food chain. Complications that GMO products ingested or used externally induce an allergic reaction are not negligible (and various studies have shown). This has also prompted many biotech companies, including American, to halt their quest for public safety. Thus if someone develops an allergy to soy because of the genetic modification of the plant, provided that there are cattle also eating the soybean (whose genes have been processed), that person would have a high probability of developing an allergic reaction from eating the meat of animals from this farm. Another potential disadvantage of GMO technology is that other organisms in the ecosystem could be affected, leading to a lower level of biodiversity. Indeed, removing a parasite that affects the harvest, one might be in the process of removing a food source for other animals. In addition, genetically modified crops may be toxic to various animals or organisms in the environment, resulting in fewer of the body. Just as certain populations of mosquitoes have developed resistance to the pesticide DDT (now banned), many experts fear that pests become resistant crops that have been transformed in genes to integrate their own pesticides.
Lack of crucial added value: Genetically modified foods come from plants that take so long to mature and require much effort to grow, which means that there is no real value in getting genetically modified foods compared to "normal foods "(out of a potential profit increase permitted by higher yields and better resistance). Greater risk of disease: since some genetically altered foods are using bacteria and viruses, the emergence of new diseases is possible. The threat to human health is a worrying aspect of the genetically modified technology and received a lot of debate. Contamination of ordinary cultures can have a very real risk to happen in terms of using genetically modified crops. Such crops can contaminate neighboring crops (including organic crops fields) relatively easily. Verbatim pollen from modified plants can spread and infect other plants. Once people release these kinds of things in nature, it is very difficult to control where it goes (because of the unpredictability of wind) (Tillmann & West, 2004).
Do the benefits outweigh the negative effects?
How can we make a normal assessment of the virtues and problems of genetically modified foods? The answer to this question is simple: the benefits must outweigh the risks when it comes to mass production. Otherwise, there is no need to use GMOs. In some parts of the world access to genetically modified foods can make sense because resources are poor there and people suffering from hunger and malnutrition. In addition, long-term consequences of genetically engineered foods on our health and our environment have not been investigated adequately.
Very high percentage of products: 93% of soybean, 93% of cotton, 86% of corn, 90% of rapeseed grown in the United States is now genetically processed foods ("Retraction: GMO debate: inconclusive", 2013). The United States and Canada do not require Food manufacturers to mention the presence of GMOs on the label of their products. In over 40 developing countries (including Australia, Japan, and all EU countries), there are significant bans on producing GMOs because they are not considered as "certified safe". The government authorities of the United States think that GMOs pose no danger to health and present more benefits than risks. Ingredients derived from genetically altered foods are present in 80% of pre-packaged for sale in the US foods (Deswina, 2015). GMOs are also added to processed foods sold in America: oils, sweeteners, and soy protein, as well as things such as amino acids, aspartame, vitamin C, flavors, soft drinks, breakfast cereal, chips, some baby foods, etc. According to the USA studies, only 52% of Americans are finding that foods altered at the gene level are available in their country. Only 26% believe that they have already eaten GMOs (Chao, 2015).
As for the EU, people are much more skeptical and think their drawbacks outweigh their benefits. Currently, the European Union allows a number of products the import (direct or indirect) and consumption by human beings and other animals. The countries of the European Union also allow some genetically modified products for cultivation. In principle, the culture of this type of food is allowed in France but is not practiced for a national ban. Furthermore, a law explicitly prohibits the cultivation of transgenic maize in France. Organic products marketed in European countries have the right to incorporate GMO residues without putting a label indicating their presence, according to an EU regulation which came into force in 2009.
References
Chao, X. (2015). Event-specific Real-time RPA Detection of Transgenic Rice Kefeng 6. Gmo. http://dx.doi.org/10.5376/gmo.2014.05.0001
Deswina, P. (2015). Policy Analysis of Sustainable Genetically Engineered Plants (GEPs) Management Using Decision Making Method in Indonesia. Gmo. http://dx.doi.org/10.5376/gmo.2015.06.0001
Parul, G. (2011). Factors Influencing Public Perception: Genetically Modified Organisms. Gmo. http://dx.doi.org/10.5376/gmo.2011.02.0001
Retraction: GMO debate: inconclusive. (2013). Front. Genet.. http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2013.00169
Tillmann, M. & West, S. (2004). Identification of geneticaly modified soybean seeds resistant to glyphosate. Sci. Agric. (Piracicaba, Braz.), 61(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/s0103-90162004000300017
