Colonialism
Although many countries attempted to colonize Africa since ancient times, the most impactful colonialization occurred by European countries. European colonization occurred in Africa in the late nineteenth century. Colonialization was a regulated governmental controlling machine. Countries such as Great Britain, France, Portugal and Belgium colonized separate areas of Africa using distinctive techniques. These countries created states within the continent of Africa and attempted to rule indirectly, paternalise assimilate or exploit Africans which lead to a legacy preventing growth. With varying types of colonization occurring throughout Africa, it has been difficult for Africa to escape the periphery.
The Colonizers
The British colonists ruled Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya and Zimbabwe indirectly. Natives were left within the power structure to some extent and local tribal leaders became councils to the British royalty. France, on the other hand, attempted a more formal direct role of ruling. France inhabited the areas of Senegal, Mali and the Ivory Coast along with other states. The French sought to assimilate the Africans into the French culture by forcing their language, laws, education and dress upon them. The Portuguese did not attempt to rule the Africans in any many, rather, they sought to exploit them by maintaining unyielding control. Portugal colonized Guinea-Bissau, Angola and Mozambique while Belgium colonized Rwanda, Zaire and Burundi. Belgium took a distinct paternalistic approach towards colonization. They did not attempt to assimilate the Africans instead they taught them western traditions and disregarded their development. Each method of colonization left behind imbedded legacies.
Colonialization Legacies
Colonization ended in the majority of African states becoming independent but left the states with legacies that have inhibited the nations from moving beyond dependence toward stabilization and into participation in globalization. Through the creation of ethnic conflict, social control and other economic, social and political factors colonization has Africa has been left with a difficult legacy to overcome.
Ethnic Conflict
As a result of the various colonization techniques used by different colonizing countries in Africa, ethnic conflict arose and prospered. The British and French colonial techniques both resulted in ethnic stratification. Each country left distinct legacies for post-colonial ethnic conflict . The indirect decentralized governance of Britain nurtured an unranked arrangement of ethnic stratification while the legacy of the French which was centralized established a ranked system. Unranked systems promote competition between ethnic groups. Competition often times leads to conflict. Thus, Britain’s legacy marked the British colonies with ethnic conflict that is frequent and intense. The French colonies were left with a centralized bureaucratic power structure. This too inhibited ethnic mobilization and blocked ethnic disputes. As a result of both the British and the French, and likely other countries involved in the colonization of Africa, the most profound legacy resulting from the colonial period is ethnic conflict. Ethnic conflict not only has stymied the growth of Africa’s economy but it has also led to civil wars and genocide which too has contributed to the continuance of Africa as a periphery.
Genocide
Genocide is an “organized and unilateral mass killing on the basis of ethnicity” . Genocide occurs even today in Africa and consists of acts including rape, torture, murder and village burning. Genocide has resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths and mass displacement of African natives. In post-colonial Africa, genocide has occurred as a result of ethnic conflict which was created by the colonizing countries. Genocide may be brought upon by governments, armies or militias that are organized in some manner against a particular ethnic group. Genocide is more likely to occur when the social structures of the ethnic conflicts are immobile, culturally and relationally distant, functionally independent and unequal. These characteristics are legacies left upon African nations from colonization. These characteristics were present in many nations of Africa due to colonization.
When genocide occurs, there is typically a lack of mobility on part of all participants. Ethnic groups in Africa shared this quality which was reinforced by colonization from the past. Those involved in genocide are within the same area and do not have the ability to disperse to different areas and thus must share location. Due to the inability or lack of desire of one group to leave the area, it is impossible for the participants of genocide to deport the unfavored group.
When genocide occurs in a society, there are varied cultural differences in all aspects of the involved groups including language, dress, music, etc.. Ethnic differences also exist which are necessary for genocide. There are enduring and prevalent cleavages among ethnic groups. Society is organized along ethnic lines, and there is a higher degree of ethnic visibility in the society. Ethnicity if harder to change and easier to identify. In Rwanda, ethnicity was exceptionally noticeable between the Hutus and the TutsisPhysical appearance was the main characteristic distinguishing the two groups. Besides being split into sectors in the community, each individual was required to carry an identification card identifying their ethnicity. Thus, conditions were ripe for the genocide that arose in this African state due to ethnic conflicts.
Genocide is also more likely to occur when ethnic groups have a distance between their relations. The two groups lack cooperation politically, economically and militarily. This was the situation in Africa after colonization. Groups did not depend on each other and inequality was pervasive. One group typically is subordinate to the other. Although pre-colonial relations in the African states of Rwanda and Burundi, all cordial relations disappeared after colonialization ended. In Sudan and Rwanda, many were killed in the civil wars due to ethnicity. In Rwanda, in 1994, the fight between the Hutus and Tutsis was the result of moral grievances between the two ethnic groups. In Sudan, the civil war between the government and the Arab militia was moralistic. Genocide in these areas were the result of grievances between ethnic groups. Ethnic conflict and genocide are only forerunners to the continuance Africa’s periphery, other facts that are economic and political have also hindered Africa’s growth out of the periphery.
Economic and Political Factors
Various economic and political factors also attribute to Africa’s periphery. Economically, Africa suffers due to its ineffective transportation and communication networks. Colonization inhibited Africa through its use of transportation facilities as well as communication. Transportation was restricted to movement of goods from the interior of Africa to the coasts rather than off coast and development of networks with other countries. Communication is restricted by the environment and the lack of possible river navigation in areas of Africa. Most African states produce only one crop or mineral thus limiting themselves to cash crops rather than food crops and making them vulnerable to world markets.
Poverty and poor health conditions also contribute to the endurance of periphery in Africa. The population base in Africa is significantly high. This, in addition to the low economic base, lends to significant struggles in a society. Poverty is also caused by environmental limitations, corrupt governments and slavery. The physical terrain of Africa made it difficult for trade from the inside of Africa to the ports. Additionally, the ports and the customs were inefficient. Poor health conditions is another factor contributing to the continuance of periphery in Africa. Disease in Africa is pervasive. The AIDS epidemic began in Africa and there are high numbers of individuals with the incurable disease in the country. With the incurability of diseases and the scarcity of physicians available in Africa to tend to the needs of the ill, Africa is left to suffer and not become a developed country.
Conclusion
Periphery in a country exists when it remains less developed than other parts of the world. Africa is one such country. Africa gets a disproportionately small share of the global wealth. This is most significantly due to ethnic conflict, genocide and other societal factors such as poverty and poor health conditions. This is also due to many other contributing facts that include the existence of weak institutions, poor education, economic instability, lack of technology, and the continued exploitation of Africa by other developed nations. When visited by outsiders, conflict and tension were present throughout Africa . Even during the end of colonization, features were present that identified the periphery of Africa and the struggle that the states would endure to overcome periphery.
Bibliography
Blanton, Robert, T. David Mason and Brian Athow. "Colonial Style and Post-Colonial Ethnic Conflict in Africa." Journal of Peace Research 38.4 (2001): 473-491. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/424898>.
Campbell, Bradley. "Genocide as Social Control." Sociological Theory 27.2 (2009): 150-172. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/40376129>.
Naumann, Joe. "Sub-Saharan Africa." Rowntree, et al. Globalization & Diversity. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008.
Zinsser, William. "Across Colonial Africa." The Sewanee Review 104.4 (1996): 658-663. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/27547278 >.
